Return to Home Page 1997 CULTURE Influlences ON ECOTOURISM PARTICIPATION by Paul Herbig Abstract A distinct correlation between high individualism and small power distance to high ecotourism use exists. The concept of high and low-context cultures is also used as a predictor in tendencies of members of a given culture to participate in ecotourism. Themes from Hofsted's Culture's Consequences are offered as a theoretical framework to add coherence to the cross-cultural study of ecotourism participation. The psychic distance paradox has been found to have a negative impact on ecotourism participation. The travel motivations of ecotourists is discussed and recommendations provideed. INTRODUCTION Conservation International, a Washington, D.C.-based organization offers the best definition of Ecotourism: "...a form of tourism inspired primarily by the natural history of an area, including its indigenous cultures (Jesitus, 1992)" with minimal impact on the environment. Ecotourists visit undeveloped areas in a spirit of appreciation, participation and sensitivity. Thus they must conserve wildlife and resources and contribute work or money to the area. Ecotourism details are depicted in Appendix A of this report. Globally, today's consumer is beginning to translate its convictions of a more sensitive approach to consumption into action: "85% of the industrialized world's citizens believe that the environment is the number one public issue, while over 76% of North Americans consider themselves environmentalists (Wight, 1993). The concept of ecotourism is not new; it became popular in the 1970s when awareness of limited natural resources arose. It was the Baby Boomers who created the first Earth Day back in 1970. The Clean Air Act of 1970 and Clean Water Act of 1972, among other initiatives, sprang from their concern and activism (Ottman, 1993). Like these efforts to conserve the environment, attention was given to the negative impact that tourism has on dependent countries. This will show later why North America is the greatest participant in ecotourism. For the companies that specialize in ecotourism, the average growth rates have been steady at 23.8% over the past few years, and higher growth is projected (Lew, 1996). Much has been written about eco-tourism destinations, consequences, and economic impact for third world countries. However, little if any information is available to understand the motivations of various cultures to participate in ecotourism more than others. The variable regions that are the focus of this report are listed in order of greatest to least participation in ecotourism (origin of traveler not tour destination): Region % of total eco-tourism participation North America (USA and Canada) 45% Germanic (West Germany and France) 25% Asia -Pacific (Indonesia, Singapore and Japan) 20% Australia (Australia and New Zealand) 10% Source: Estimates based on Lew's Ecotourism Operators Survey Gallup's Health of the Planet Survey, conducted in 1992 in 22 countries, supports that a personal environmental commitment in triad countries specifically ecotourism were also in the listed above (Simon, 1992). Psychic distance is an important variable in understanding the dynamics of the globalization concept (country clusters) (Hofstede, 1980). It is synonymous to cultural distance and can be determined by using the following indicators: a. level of economic development (i.e. U.S. and Canada good economies) b. level of education and differences between physically close countries (i.e. Philippines and Singapore have low-education based on Power Distance Index [Hofstede, 1980]) c. language difference (i.e. U.S. and Canada both use English predominantly) d. administrative differences (i.e. Australia and New Zealand share power distance or authoritative values [Hofstede, 1980]) NORTH AMERICA (U.S AND CANADA) Canadians are expected to be closest in their value systems to the Americans merely based on proximity. It is important to understand why the regions listed above have been grouped in such a manner. The U.S. and Canada are so close to each other in both cultural distance index rankings because of their proximity and apparent cultural similarities. They are in the same Anglo country cluster; evident from studies of attitudes and values such as those conducted in the 1970's by Ronen and Shenkar (O'Grady and Lane, 1996). It is also reasonable to assume a substantial degree of cultural similarity between the U.S. and Canada as derived in Hofstede's 1980 original research. The U.S. has the highest Individualism Index values measuring (91) followed by a close 4th, Canada, measuring 80 on the index. Freedom and enjoyment in life appeals to high IDV. Individual initiative is evident in work and leisure. The U.S. and Canada are both included in a country cluster that exhibits masculinity and weak uncertainty avoidance. In general, the North American is an action- man, that is also a risk taker, thrives on initiative and spontaneity. Freedom, like proving oneself, rewarding performance are all values that motive the traveler to choose ecotourism (Marcic, 1994). To illustrate, the "action-man" can be literized to choose a tour to Angel Falls in which he and a group lead by Indians canoe 8 hours up the piranha infested waters to Mount Auyantepui where he camps in hammocks without electricity, running water or communication with the civilized world. The North American culture is also listed as low-context. Discussion will show later in the report that the most active ecotourist travelers are of low-context cultures. A low-context culture can be identified as one where messages are explicit, direct and verbal. Little is left to ambiguity. Relationships are less structured and individual achievement is valued by those of a low-context culture (Kennedy, 1996). The author of this report loosely attributes low-context culture traits to their active participation in ecotourism. The need to succeed in a risky jungle tour may be an example to illustrate the attribution of this theory. The market profile of the North American ecotourism traveler is based on a study conducted by the Alberta Economic Development and Tourism Center and the government of British Columbia. The experienced ecotourist is generally older (35 to 54 years old) than the general consumer (24 to 44 yrs old). It is probable that age varies with activity and other factors such as cost. The gender of ecotourists reported in the literature has also varied but this study indicates that 65% of ecotourists were male. All literature researched has consistently suggested that ecotourists tend to be much better educated than general tourists. Eagles found that 64.9% of Canadian ecotourists had university degrees (1992). Ecology Fifty-seven percent of the U.S.A. and 77% of Canadian consumers avoided environmentally harmful products, according to the Health of the Planet Survey conducted in 1992 (Simon, 273). This "green" behavior can also attribute to consumers choice of ecotourism versus more traditional forms of travel. Probably the most important culture determinant for ecotourism participation for the North Americans is a result of the Baby Boom era in the United States. Environmental consumerism was the result of the anti-war, anti-big business, and pro-environment activism that was initiated by 77 million Baby Boomers born between 1946 and 1964. Their decisions today are shaped by deep-rooted values. Their choice of ecotourism vs. traditional "environment destructive" travel is as a result of the guilt they feel for their contribution to environmental ills (Ottman, 1992). These more educated and enlightened consumers are taking action by avoiding risky services and products and choosing environmentally-friendly travel. The values shift to "be nice to nature" is one that ecotour operators should market heavily on and be prepared for "booming retirees". Woodside and Jacobs (1985) learned that Canadian ecotourists most often reported rest and relaxation as the major benefits realized from their Hawaiian ecotourist visits, while mainland Americans reported cultural experiences. ASIA-PACIFIC The boom in Japan's outbound travel market can be attributed to its strong stable economy, the continued strength of the yen, increasing allowances on the amount of foreign currency for tourist use, and overseas investment in the hospitality industry. Also, more active involvement of the Japanese government in international travel and tourism activities, the deregulation of the Japanese airline industry in 1986, and bilateral visa waiver agreements for international travel. Japanese visitors reported family togetherness as the major benefit realized on their ecotourist vacation to Hawaii (Woodside and Jacobs, 1985). The Asia-Pacific country cluster is also considered to have weak uncertainty avoidance, Singapore and the Philippines are masculine countries whose citizens enjoy taking risks. Another factor which increases use of ecotourism for these travelers is that many operators are located in the Asia-Pacific region (Lew, 1996). The Japanese, included in this group, have strong uncertainty avoidance depicted in their eternal pursuit of harmony. But, the author emphasizes their thirst for knowledge and harmony with nature keep them actively participating in ecotourism. Their future orientation beliefs state that one's destiny is predetermined and subject to the will of the Gods. People conduct their lives in the present, but live by past traditions; a sense of future is lacking. Ecology The Pacific Islanders believe mankind must adapt to nature and its forces and never resist them. This cultural value is the driving force behind ecotourism participation. This group includes Indonesia, Singapore and Japan as the major international customer markets. Their value system is highly structured. According to the Ecotourism Market Survey, Asia-Pacific is motivated largely by nature tours. Eighty- one percent of Asia Pacific respondents enjoy wildlife, nature, natural history, jungles and rainforests, and science-based nature tours (Lew, 1996). This can be attributed to the desolate low vegetation in Japan. Geographically, it is also important to remember that Japan is a country of 120 million people on a land mass that is isolated and the size of California. Their need for knowledge of not available to them a motivation to choose ecotourism. A study conducted in Japan to determine the motivational factors for international travel (Cha, McClearny, 1995) reveals important information in isolating the culture's values choosing ecotourism as a mode of travel. The study revealed six distinct motivation factors of the Japanese travelers: relax, knowledge, adventure, travel bragging, family, and sports (Cha, McClearny, 1996). It is important to point that Japanese travelers put a high emphasis on knowledge and adventure which stems from their Confucianism beliefs. Keeping face in Japan is so important that travelers place foreign travel as something of a status symbol; for the affluent and adventurous. They probably attribute the knowledge and adventure seeking values to justify travel as compensation for the hard work and long hours that are deeply ingrained in the Japanese culture. In addition, the Japanese have the longest life expectancy in the world. A trait marketers should not overlook in their ecotourism marketing. Patience of man within nature is a value distinct to the Asian culture. Harmony must always be maintained locally and globally (Marcic, 1994). Travel must result in little impact-this is a characteristic of ecotourism. Japanese culture keeps a very hierarchical society. The people are not individualistic. This phenomenon makes it difficult to relate individualism to an increased tendency to participate in ecotourism. But evidence will later show a direct correlation between high individualism and tendencies to participate in ecotourism. The theory of low-context cultures participating in ecotourism more than high-context cultures is contradicted by the Japanese. Their culture is high-context, however, the Japanese in particular can be said to be limited in nature-tourism facilities which results in their active participation in ecotourism. It is the author’s opinion that the Asians are traveling out of intellectual curiosity and inquisitiveness. They wish to learn about nature within the wilderness. The Japanese value system clearly defines knowledge as the a discipline and a reflection of family prestige. The Confucian idea of education is to create the true gentleman (Marcic, 1994). Other values of the Asia-Pacific that are indiginous to Singapore and Indonesia culture are: Nature is considered beautiful and good, there should be conformity to the rule of nature. The Confucian ideal that is represented in Japan and Indonesia stems root in ecotourism. Ecotourism is an application of their value system. It is important to note that Asia-Pacific travelers may participate highly in ecotourism because environmentally and culturally sensitive tours are operated in these countries. Indonesia is clearly the dominant acceder destination overall with 40% of acceder companies coming being from there (Lew, 1996). Finally, ecotourism is generally expensive depending on the degree of involvement of the operator. The Japanese spend more on travel than any other country (Woodside & Jacobs, 1985). GERMANIC Future orientation German society believes anyone can create their own future: "where there is a will there is a way!" "Everybody is the blacksmith of his own future!" " in the long run only the achiever enjoys good luck!" Travel has historically been considered the pastime of the affluent. Today, German's still attribute success with well-traveled people. The Germanic country cluster including Switzerland, France and Austria are on the low end of the weak uncertainty avoidance scale (Hofstede, 1980). Their masculinity may be the factor that makes them more included to participate in ecotourism, the which the author has identified as a link. Ecology The German culture believes nature is subordinate to Mankind. Historically, Germans believed that nature was meant to feed the bodies and minds of the people (Grunert, 1990). Feeding the mind through education on the environment and cultures of third world countries is a motivator for Germans to participate in ecotourism. The German work ethic is that working is fun and the main purpose of life because of the facilities it gives man. For example tourism, success at work leaves more resources for travel. The following are a few of the cultural values that are characteristic with the German culture: Obligations-promises are "Pacta sunt servanda." voluntarily assumes as part of an agreement must be kept according to the legal doctrine. Time: "Time is money!" If a German is not able to get the job done today, it is a lost day; time gone can never be recaptured and is lost forever. Purpose in Life: Goal orientation, dedication, and hard work lead to economic success and a fulfilling social life. Krippendorf (1987) has stated that one-third of the population in West Germany "belongs to the category of highly environment-conscious people, and the share is growing rapidly." Germans visit South American heavily and participate in their ecotours as a sense of patriotism. German explorers were the first to conduct expeditions in several parts of South America such Venezuela. It was learned by the author through conversation with natives that the Amazon, today, is visited by German expeditions more than from any other country. The French are not basically oriented towards competition. They tend to participate in ecotours in groups and often isolate themselves from the other groups participating in the tour. The French are motivated by the quality of life "qualite' de la vie". They attach a great importance to free-time and nature-oriented vacations (Lew, 1996), and are seldom willing to sacrifice the enjoyment of life for work (Harris, 1979). The French particularly enjoy the Asian-Pacific region for exploration and travel. AUSTRALIA The Australian country cluster includes New Zealand. The primary cultural motivation for ecotourism may be the geographical condition of both countries. Both countries are rich in fauna and flora which makes the country a valuable destination for ecotourists. Most Australians participate in ecotourism in their native country, but many enjoy the variations offered in the Asia-Pacific region (Colebatch, 1995). Ecology More species of animals exist on the island of Australia, the oldest land mass, than on any other continent in the world. This phenomenon creates a degree of pride in the preservation of nature and the environment (Colebatch, 1995). The "Aussies" are risk-takers and have a naturalistic idea of society. They are a very "natural people" who participate actively in nature sports. Over 70% of travelers in Australia and New Zealand participate in a form of ecotourism (Colebatch, 1995). The author suggests equating the "Aussies" with the northwestern United States "granolas". Australia and New Zealand cultures posses weak uncertainty avoidance (Hofstede, 1980). Hofstede correlates their position with their old democracies. He argues that countries developed high uncertainty avoidance as a result of conflict (winning or losing a war) which lead to new forms of government. Similarly, Canada is an old democracy whose citizens show little fear of change or taking risks. Their spirit of competition is manifested in the ultimate form with man against nature. Non-impact of course, but man overcoming the challenges of nature is a form of leisure Australians seek to engage. Appropriate protocol and courtesy to other cultures makes Australia and New Zealand (Colebatch, 1995) good candidates for ecotravelers. Low uncertainty avoidance is a result of lower anxiety level in the population, greater readiness to live by the day, less emotional resistance to change, stronger achievement motivation, more risk-taking, preference for broad guidelines, larger fraction prepared to tolerate abroad (Hofstede, 1980). The second highest Individualism Index values are found in Australia (90) (Hofstede, 1980). UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE VERSUS MASCULINITY In ECOTOURISM North American, Germanic, Asia-Pacific, and Australia country clusters all possess weak uncertainty avoidance and strong masculinity (Hofstede, 1980). This translates into high achievement motivation (Hofstede, 1980). Members of this group can be expected to participate in challenging acceders such as climbing Devil's Mountain in Australia where many have died. INDIVIDUALISM AND POWER DISTANCE AS FACTORS IN ECOTOURISM High individualism can be directly correlated to high participation in ecotourism as it's characteristics are described by Hofstede. Americans are very individualistic and it is interpreted as a major contributor to the greatness of the United States. The identity is based on the individual (Hofstede 1980). The fifth of the top seven reasons to participate in ecotourism is for "presence-seeking" (Fontane, 1993). When surveyed, ecotourism travelers described their " experiences there [destination] are so real and vivid; I feel very alive" (Fontane, 1993). Ecotourism can also be motivated by a desire for self-discovery and self-definition (Belk, 1995). The tourist's quest for self-discovery as a search for the reality and authenticity must to be missing out of his personal life absent of family and friends. Hofstede identifies the "I" consciousness as a characteristic of individualism. "I" versus "We", which indicates a group, is a perception of risk takers and ecotravelers. Similarly, individual initiative to conserve nature whether it be out of guilt for damage done or as an effort to fulfill his/her role in society. Cultures with high individualism indexes naturally will be more inclined to participate in ecotourism for the reasons mentioned above. Canada, U.S. , Australia and New Zealand are grouped together in Hofstede's positioning of countries on the power distance and individualism scales. This group has the strongest inverse correlation in small Power Distance and high Individualism. Consequently, members of these cultures have a higher tendency to participate in ecotourism. The Germanic group including some Scandinavian countries are also in the same quadrant but grouped differently. Although, this study was based on management values, these attitudes can be directly attributed to tourism as well because it involves motivations in decision making whether it be management or travel choices. Japan, again paradoxes this phenomenon by discrediting the argument above; The Japanese are the weakest in the Large Power Distance and low individualism group. The distance from the significant quadrant is minimal, Japan can almost be included in the small power distance high individualism position, but altering data, even slightly, for desired results will discredit this argument. This author maintains that other values such as thirst for knowledge and maintaining harmony with nature, aforementioned, drive the Japanese decision to participate in ecotourism. LOW-CONTEXT CULTURES AND ECOTOURISM Communication and interaction manners contribute highly to the level of risk that a traveler is willing to take. All of the countries mentioned in this report possess low-context cultures, with the exception of Japan. A low-context culture allows for loose relationships; i.e. travelers able to interact freely with natives of host cultures without fear of having to maintain relationships. Communication is verbose which is important when traveling in third world countries. Most third world countries are also low-context and communication should be clear. Needs and wants cannot be implied or coded which is typical of the high-context culture. Desires, discomforts and fears must be verbalized in order for satisfaction to be met. As with most acceders, travelers must be able to trust the others in the group. It is important to have open communication, when members of the group are all responsible for keeping the boat afloat traveling up the Orinoco River. It is the author's opinion that Germans lack trust in others, when group efforts are concerned. The German is more likely to keep all possessions within an arms length and be self-sufficient in their survival needs. CONCLUSION In summary, a direct link between cultural values of a society and tendencies to participate in ecotourism has been established. North Americans, Germans, Asians and Australians tend to participate in ecotourism more than regions not mentioned based on the low-context of their culture, high individualism and low uncertainty avoidance. These characteristics are consistent with all major active participating countries, therefore, it is assumed that the relationship is dynamic. This report establishes that cultures grouped based on psychic distance and culture similarities are similar to the globalization theory established by Hofstede (1980). This consistency further allows for the determination of cultural values of the grouped countries to act as variables in the ecotourism motivation equation. The importance of this information is essential to marketers who wish to keep ecotourism an activity of the future, here to stay, and not another trendy pastime. IMPLICATIONS FOR ECOTOURISM Ecotourism, where vacationers learn something about their destination's local ecology and may even help to sustain it, is likely to keep expanding. This segment is nourished by well-educated baby boomers whose incomes are rising and who are very interested in vacations with a learning component (Francese, 1996). Although 65% of ecotourists in North America are currently male, future ecotourism markets will be 50/50 male and female (Cook, Stewart, and Repass 1992). It has been suggested that there may be a tendency for greater male interest in specialist activities, while females are more likely to participate in general interest experiences. It has also been suggested by Campbell goodell Consultants that males would be more interested in outdoor adventure travel products. (Wight, 1996). It is hoped that this report will provide ecotourism marketers with some insights about "green" travelers, thereby helping them plan the appropriate marketing strategies target to such culture diverse market. Ecotourists can be branded Novelty Seekers (Cha, Sukbin), those who are diligent in their pursuit of new experiences and knowledge in overseas travel, tourism packages and promotional strategies should focus on the adventure and knowledge orientation of the trip instead of being sports- or family-oriented. Because the Japanese travel industry is the fastest growing, periodic surveys of the Japanese market may be useful for spotting motivational trends; information which may be critical in adjusting advertising messages and matching the motivations of the travelers to destination countries. References Bushnell, Sherry. The Ecotourism Planning Kit. A Business Planning Guide for Ecotourism Operators in the Pacific Islands. Honolulu: The Pacific Business Center Program, 1994. Cha, Sukbin, McCleary, and Ken W. Uysal, Muzaffer. “Travel Motivations of Japanese Overseas Travelers: A factor-cluster segmentation approach.” Journal of Travel Research 34(1) (1995): 3-39. Colebatch, Hal G.P. “Symbols & Sounding Brass.” Ipa Review 47(3) (1995): 33-37. Eagles, Paul. “The Travel Motivations of Canadian Ecotourists”. Journal of Travel Research 31 (2) (1992): 3-7 Francese, Peter. “Roamin' Holiday.” American Demographics Jul/Aug. 1996: A76 Harris, Phillip and Moran Robert T. Managing Cultural Differences. Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, 1979. Jesitus, John. “Evolution of Ecotourism.” Hotel and Motel Management 27 Apr. 1992: A43 Kennedy, Jim. Everest, Anna. “Put Diversity in Context.” Secured Lender 52 (1996): 54-56+ Lew, Alan, A. Ph.D., AICP “The Ecotourism Market in the Asia Pacific Region: A Survey of Asia Pacific and North American Tour Operators.” wwwURL:HTTP://www.for.nau.edu/~alew/ecotsvy.html 12 August 1996 Marcic, Dorthy and Puffer, Sheila M. Management International. St. Paul: West Publishing Company, 1994 Ogrady, Shawna, and Lane, Henry W. “The Psychic Distance Paradox” Journal of International Business Studies 27 (2) (1996): 309-333. Ottman, Jacquelyn A. Green Marketing. Chicago: NTC Publishing Group, 1993. Simon, Francois. “The Health of The Planet Survey” The Columbia Journal of World Business. Fall & Winter (1992): 269-274. Wight, Pamela A. “North American Ecotourists: Market profile and trip characteristics.” Journal of Travel Research 34 (4) (1996): 2-10 Woodside, A., and L. Jacobs. “Step Two in Benefit Segmentation: Learning the benefits realized by major travel markets.” Journal of Travel Research 24 (1985): 7-13. APPENDICES APPENDIX A: Checklist for Ecotourism ••it should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an environmentally sound manner; it should not degrade the resource and should be developed in an environmentally sound manner; ••it should provide first-hand, participatory, and enlightening experiences; it should provide first-hand, participatory, and enlightening experiences; ••it should involve education among all parties-local communities, government, nongovernmental organizations, industry, and tourists (before, during, and after the trip); it should involve education among all parties-local communities, government, nongovernmental organizations, industry, and tourists (before, during, and after the trip); ••it should encourage all-party recognition of the intrinsic values of the resource it should encourage all-party recognition of the intrinsic values of the resource ••it should involve acceptance of the resource on its own terms, and in recognition of its limits, which involves supply-oriented management; it should involve acceptance of the resource on its own terms, and in recognition of its limits, which involves supply-oriented management; ••it should promote understanding and involve partnerships between many players, which could include government, nongovernment organizations, industry, scientists, and locals (both before an dduring operations); it should promote understanding and involve partnerships between many players, which could include government, nongovernment organizations, industry, scientists, and locals (both before an dduring operations); ••it should promote moral and ethical responsibilities and behaviors towards the natural and cultural environmet, by all players; it should promote moral and ethical responsibilities and behaviors towards the natural and cultural environmet, by all players; ••it should provide lont-term benefits-to the resource, to the local community, and to industry (benefits may be conservation, scientific, social, cultural, or economic). Source: Adapted from Wight, 1993 APPENDIX B: Value Targets for Marketers CHART: Using the results of data analyzed in this report, the following are results and rankings of important ecotraveler needs based on global regions and most common needs as determined by Bushnell. The ranking is 1= most important Customer Seeks: N.A. Germanic Asia Aus/NZ Quality 12 8 1 15 Uniqueness 1 7 3 1 Lower Prices 10 9 4 6 Product Styles 11 10 16 14 Reliability 12 6 6 13 Delivery 9 5 13 7 Location 13 4 5 2 Information 8 11 12 12 Availability 13 12 11 5 Credit Card Option 15 13 15 16 Customer Advice 7 14 14 10 Accessories 6 15 10 11 Knowledge 2 16 2 8 Polite Help 5 3 9 9 Culture 4 1 7 3 Environ. Conscious 3 2 8 4 (Bushnell, 1994) This list was slightly modified in order to best apply values available in research.