by Octavian Sarbatoare (BA USyd)
The present
paper attempts to discuss the nature and role of Vedic sacrifice in Vedic
literature and the ways this topic is expressed by relevant commentators on
the subject. Issues of Vedic practices will be discussed along with their
purpose, in so taking into account the historical approach to sacrifice/
offering (yajna/
agnihotra/ homa/ agnihoma/ havan) and its evolution in time. The period
covered is from the early era of Vedic literature known as Samhitas,
until the later era dominated by the Upanishads.
Vedic period
of Hinduism starts with the proto-historic Hinduism/ early Vedic period,
(until approx. 5th c. B.C.E.) and continues into the classical
period (until approx. the 5th c. C.E.) (Hinnells, 1994,
pp. 194-196). The early Vedic
and classical periods of Hinduism contain four layers of sacred literature
namely Samhita (consisting of Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and
Atharva Veda), Brahmana, Aranyaka and Upanishads. The first two layers are usually referred as
Karma Kanda, the section that emphasizes on action, whereas the last two
layers are known as Jnana Kanda, the section that emphasizes on knowledge. The
later section of Veda is seen as pertinent to the Classical period of
Hinduism. Yet, most important of all is the fact that the above division is based
mainly on the attitude towards sacrifice (yajna). Although the purpose of
practicing yajna remains the same, the way of its performing evolved
in time along with various layers of Hinduism.
Yajna in
itself is to be seen as the very essence of Veda. From the early times, the
ritual was understood to be the link between the human and the Divine and a
vehicle towards liberation. By such a link, the human could access the Divine and
fulfill the very purpose of the human existence, that being to worship the
Divine as the Creator of all things. Yet, in its
incipient form yajna practice was in connection with the cyclical natural phenomena
particularly the seasons (ritu) and the overall order of things perceived in
nature. The place of human beings within the whole system of things was
attentively taken into account. In this manner, from empirical observations,
the concept of Cosmic Order or Divine Order (rita) developed and the practice
of yajna became gradually a rite of ontological significance .
Vedic culture
(note 1) evolved on the basis of yajna having primarily the purpose to create
harmony. This harmony refers mainly to issues of nature and the place of human
beings within the environment, but also to the harmony within a human being. Deities (gods), as principles of life, natural phenomena or
psycho-social tendencies in the human, were conceptually acknowledged and became
instrumental to obtain the harmony the humans were looking for. The archetypal and
phenomenal, thought and action were integrated into a single reality and
self-aware self-determination (Frawley D., p. 40) Yet, the human-Divine link
played by the role of yajna was to obtain gods' favours either in the
external world or as benefits for practitioner's psyche. The overall kinds of goals were in the forms of good crop, cattle, good weather,
progeny, good health, happiness of any kind, etc. Yet, besides the common
goals yajna has specific characteristics pertinent to
every Vedic era.
Vedic scriptures
point out that sacrifice was essential from the very beginning of creation. Prajapati
(Lit. 'lord of creatures'), a god having a major position in the
early Veda, was described as the embodiment of sacrifice. In Br.,I.2.7 (note
2) Prajapati identifying
himself with the universe desires: "May this body of mine be fit for
sacrifice" for the purpose of creating the world. Gradually the early
Vedic pantheon emerged as being dominated by the fourfold godhead namely Indra, Agni, Soma and
Surya. Extensive hymns were
consecrated to these gods as is written in the Rig Veda (Lit. 'Veda of praise'), the most ancient sacred book of
Hinduism. As offerings were done to honour somebody, the ritual was performed
depending on those goals.
During the early Vedic period there were five great kinds of sacrifices namely
brahmayajna, devayajna, pitriyajna, manushyayajna and bhutayajna as sacrifices
to Brahman (the highest Reality), to devas, to ancestors, to human beings and to all living
creatures respectively. (Satchidananda Murty K., 1993, pp. 85-86). They apply
to the two manners of performing sacrifice, either the shrauta rite that was
done by Vedic priests according to shruti (i.e. sacred literature of Divine
revelation) rules or grihya (domestic) rite performed by a householder man in
many cases assisted by his wife (patni). However the shrauta rite is much
elaborated, its aims extending far beyond the purpose of a household.
The shrauta rite was particularly attentive to what were the necessary objects
and how they have to be used within the sacrificial arena. Particular
attention was given to how the actions were to be performed or how the
participants had to behave during the time of ritualistic activities. The
enclosure (vedi) of the sacrificial ground was systematically arranged in an
arena suitable for that specific purpose according to what the ritualistic
literature recommended. Some objects used were the woods sticks (arani or
idhma) in order to help kindling the sacred fire by friction. Other objects
were logs of wood (samidh) as fuel, the offering spoon as sacrificial
instrument/ utensil (sruca or agnihotrahavani), the pressing-stone of
soma
stalks (gravan), the sacrificial vessel (camasa) holding soma and food
offering, the list of objects being quite long. Within the vedi there was an
area known as antarvedi surrounding the fire-pit (kunda) in which the sacrificial fire (agni)
has to burn various offerings. The antarvedi area has to be strewed with
sacred grass (kusha) on which water was sprinkled according to specific rules.
The fire sacrifice/ offering/ oblation (agnihoma) was patronized by the Vedic
priests (ritvija) (vide intra) in charge with putting into the
sacrificial fire articles consisting of nourishments (annahoma) like milk,
clarified butter, cereals, fruits, various powders, vegetables and flowers,
etc.
The basic shrauta rite involved the participation of four Vedic priests, each
one having specific attributes. They were known as hotri, adhvaryu, udgatri
and brahman (brahmin) each priest could have three helpers if necessary. The Vedic
priests were all chanting priests. As tradition stipulates, hotri was the
priest chanting the hymns of Rig Veda while performing oblation into the fire,
adhvaryu was the one chanting the hymns of Yajur Veda while performing
adhvara,
i.e. his duties before the sacrifice itself. Udgatri priest was the one
chanting the Sama Veda hymns, while brahman priest seen as the most learned
was the supervisor of the entire ceremony and the one chanting the hymns of
Atharva Veda. Yet, the central figure of the sacrifice was seen to be the
adhvaryu priest for the fact that he was the one measuring the sacrificial
ground, building all that was necessary and preparing the materials to be used
like, articles of oblation, utensils, woods and water. He also used to kindle
the fire for expected offerings. Thus, the adhvaryu priest’s skills to
perform correct his duties were of utmost importance for the rituals of fire sacrifice. The
very success of yajna was dependant on having the right set-up before the
ceremony of chanting and offering could start.
As the scriptures suggest, the ways of performing yajna was different
according to the aim in sight by the sacrificer, the one beneficiary of the
rite. As fire sacrifice could be an offering to brahma, deva, pitri, manushya or
bhuta, the aims of fire sacrifice have to be compatible with what was in
their powers. The shrauta rite was a personal affair between the sacrificer and
the unseen Divine forces that could give to the sacrificer his objects of
desires. With the completion of yajna ritual
by the final offering (purnahuti),
its fruits were expected to materialize after a certain period of time, the
power of fire sacrifice being seen as transitory. Considering the Vedic periods
of time, yajna ritual evolved, in so bringing the transformation of the Vedic ritual
itself.
It is on the account of the transformation of the Vedic
ritual that the Hindu tradition evolved to retain the concept of yajna in different forms. The change was mainly
related to the gradual internalization of the ritual. Thus, from a rite of
overt expression of much detail elaboration, the rite evolved around the human
being as a central point. The internalization
of fire sacrifice into the microcosmic world of the human body becomes predominant during the Classical
period of Hinduism dominated by Jnana Kanda. This period emphasized on
knowledge as the way to obtain the same fruits that could be procured by the
shrauta kind of ritual performed
during the early period as above described. Thus, during the Aranyaka and
especially the Upanishad periods of Vedic times, the elaborated shrauta rite
lost its dominance, in so a new kind of approach to yajna taking the front stage.
The important development during the later periods of Veda was that devas
(gods) descend in order to become homologous with the psycho-physiological
functions of the human body. Hierophany was thus internalized within the human
body in the following terms: "The organ of speech (vak) (of the
sacrificer) is looked upon as Agni (‘fire’)" (Br.,III.1.3), "the
eye (cakshus) of the sacrificer is Aditya (‘sun’)" (Br.,III.1.4) ,
"the vital force (prana) (of the sacrificer) is looked upon as Vayu
(‘air’)" (Br.,III.1.5), "the mind (manas) of the sacrificer is
Candra (‘moon’)" (Br.,III.1.6). The Self which was seen as of nature
of Hiranyagarbha (‘the golden egg’) is identified in Br.,II.1.17 as being
in the heart. The four Vedic priests were also internalized as Br.,III.1.3-6
points out: “speech is the hotri”, “the eye is the adhvaryu”, “the
breath is the udgatri”, “mind is the brahman”. Now, the new kind of
sacrificer taking the role of imago
mundi is no other but the spiritual aspirant himself that strives towards
the knowledge (jnana) of Brahman as the highest reality. Not only the external
world finds correspondence within the aspirant’s internal world, but also
his internal world is reflected in the external world (lokas) of magnifying
proportions thus: "the organ of speech (vak) itself is the earth, the
mind (manas) is the sky and the vital force (prana) is heaven"
(Br.,I.5.4). Yet, the entire interconnectivity of macro and micro universes as
seen in the Upanishads does
persistently address the issue of spiritual liberation (kaivalya) by
the means of knowledge.
Basically, the
entire literature of the Upanishads emphasizing on knowledge of reality was
conducive to kaivalya as fruit of the new approach towards sacrifice. The essence of the
Upanishads are their most relevant conclusions, the four great sayings (Mahavakyas)
namely: Tattvamasi, Ahambrahmasmi, Prajnanam Brahma, Ayamatma Brahma (note 3).
They summarize the whole philosophical concept, in which the central figure
becomes the human being. This shift of centrality is essential in order to
understand what happened to the concept of yajna itself. Not only
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad but also other major Upanishads like Ishavasya,
Chandogya, Katha, Kena, Aitareya, do emphasize on the knowledge of Brahman as
essential to liberation. The transition of the outer yajna towards the inner yajna is
suggestively described in Garbha Upanishad one of the minor Upanishads.
According to it, the sacrifice could be performed by the sacrificer within
one’s own body that has all the necessary articles/ items and functions
required by yajna of the shrauta rite.
This is how
Garbha Upanishad sees the correspondence between the outer yajna and the inner
yajna performed with and within the human body: “The mind and the organs of
the senses become the sacrificial vessels; karmendriyas (organs of action) are
the sacrificial instruments. … In this (sacrifice), the body is the
sacrificial place, the skull of the head is the fire-pit, the hairs are the
kusha grass; the mouth is the antarvedi (the raised platform in sacrifice)”
(Narayanasvami Aiyar K. 1979, pp.121-122). Furthermore, the above scripture
goes into much detail to define the correspondence between the outer form of yajna and human physical body, its
function, capacities and any qualitative experience it might have. In a total
expression of the inner aspect of yajna, Garbha Upanishad concludes that the
importance of the sacrifice becomes paramount: “All who are living (in this world) are
the sacrificers. There is none living who does not perform yajna. This body is
(created) for yajna, and arises out of yajna and changes according to
yajna.”
(ibid., p. 122). The conclusion
is that body and mind become the repositories of qualities that are consistent
with the essence of the Upanishads presented in the Mahavakyas (vide supra)
towards the attainment of liberation.
In practical
terms liberation becomes a total experience of life in which the right mental
attitude and knowledge are necessary. This fact is outlined by the concept of
sacrifice known as atmarpana (‘offering to Atma’). This all-encompassing
concept is seen in a broad sense as the conscious attitude of a person to
offer one’s own actions to the Divine in order to sanctify the ordinary
human existence. On these lines, the action of working with the hands becomes mudra, the gesture of praise of the Divine; the act of talking becomes
japa,
the uttering of sacred formulae; the act of eating becomes yajna, the offering
of nutrients to the Divine; the act of breathing becomes agnihotra, the
sacrifice/ consumption of the air into the act of breathing, etc.
Thus, it is not surprising that the sexual act of intercourse itself is seen as yajna. This is how Br.,VI.4.3 describes the correspondence of the bodily parts of a woman and the instrumentality of yajna: “Her lower part is the (sacrificial) altar, (her) hairs the (sacrificial) grass, her skin the soma-press. The two labia of the vulva are the fire in the middle.” (Radhakrishnan S., 1997, p. 321). Thus, the man is the one doing the offering in the form of sexual penetration of the woman and sperm ejaculation as a final offering (purnahuti). The woman in this case is the entire vedi area in which the ritual is performed. It is thus a sanctification of the sexual act that becomes sacred. Although using a different terminology, a much similar approach was developed in great detail in Hinduism by the concept of tantra. It becomes clear indeed that the act of union (yoga) in various forms is central to the new approach to yajna. On these accounts, the practice of yoga in itself, as union (yuj) with the Divine, could be seen as performance of yajna.
As the
specialised literature stipulates, the yoga practice as life transforming allows somebody to
aspire to the highest state of liberation known under different names, yet one
word has become well-known that of jivanmukti. Thus, jivanmukta is
that person who attained liberation, but still manifests in a human body. Yet, the human body is not an
ordinary body anymore, but is now sanctified by the yoga as an act of
sacrifice. This is
how Eliade (1975, pp. 199-200) writes on the
qualitative experience of life as yoga that is much consistent with the
idea of imitatio dei: “The ideal of yoga, the state of a jivanmukta,
is to live in an ‘eternal present’, outside time. ‘The man liberated in
life’ no longer possesses a personal consciousness – that is, nourished in
his own history – but a witnessing consciousness, which is pure lucidity and
spontaneity.”
On these
lines, relevant classical yoga literature presents the importance of
sacrifice for the purpose of liberation. In the well-known Bhagavad Gita work,
that is a book of yoga par excellence, one reads (BG, III.9).:
“The world is bound by action (karma), unless performed for sake of
sacrifice (yajna)” (note 4). Furthermore, “By this (yajna) you nourish the
gods and the gods will nourish you; thus by nourishing one another you shall
attain the Supreme goal (i.e. liberation).” (BG, III.11). In this
manner the wishes of the sacrificer become fulfilled because “…the gods
nourished by sacrifice shall bestow on you the enjoyments you desire” (BG,
III.12). In an fundamental conclusion, yajna is seen at the basis of the
creation itself because “Brahma, the Creator, in the beginning of the world
created human beings together with yajna and said: By yajna you shall prosper
and yajna shall fulfill all your desires.” (BG, III.10).
Considering
various forms of yajna and its development in time, as above described, the
question of today’s relevance of all forms of yajna does arise (note 5).
Indeed, nowadays, mainly in India, all forms of yajna are still practiced. The
shrauta rite could assembly together thousands of people to attend, each person could
take a personal resolution (sankalpa), a wish sent to gods via the
offerings in oblation (note 6). Yet, the domestic rite (grihya) is widely
practiced in many households following the tradition within that family. Yajna
in the form of yoga is popular all over the world.
Concluding
this paper is to say that the sacrificial rites were performed from the dawn
of Hinduism in various forms and for various purposes. The four layers of Veda
outline the practice of yajna rites according to the scriptural literature at
that time. The shrauta kind of ritual was very much elaborated and
relied of the
Vedic priests to perform the ceremony on behalf of the sacrificer. The
sacrificial ground has to be set up in a proper manner, having the necessary
articles and tools for the priests to start the offering into the fire along
with their chanting.
In the last
two periods of the Vedic era, the emphasis from the outer mode of offering
shifted towards the internalization of the ritual. The gods and their
expressions in the outer form of yajna were found to be in the human body
itself. The Upanishads particularly point out that whatever manifests as
Divine expression in the external world could be found in the internal world
of a practitioner of yajna. Various correspondences were made in order to show
that the Divine powers or expressions of divinity were present as
potentialities in the human being. This approach was very much consistent with
the teachings of the Upanishads.
Yajna evolved
to be less ritualistic in the form of a total mental attitude of surrender know as atmarpana, the offering of every action to
Atma, the Divine. A systematic
practical approach to yajna became yoga with its many forms and a good
methodological approach towards the issue of freedom, that is liberation in
its spiritual sense. This form of yajna is better known than any other forms of
yajna. Yet, the nature and role of Vedic sacrifice in its
multiple forms, became integrated at the level of the present religious
practices in India. As for the importance of
yajna at the level of humanity, it is tenable to say that by the practice of yoga in many
parts of the world, yajna has acquired a worldwide recognition as a valuable
spiritual inheritance for mankind.
References
Besant A. and Das B. The Bhagavad Gita, The Theosophical Publishing House, Adyar, 1997
Eliade, M. Patanjali and Yoga, Schocken Books, New York, 1975
Frawley, D. Wisdom of the Ancient Seers, Mantras of the Rig Veda, Motilal Banarsidas Publishers, Delhi, 1994
Hinnells, J. A Handbook of
Living Religions, John R. Hinnells and Penguin Books Ltd, 1994
Mahadevananda Giri, Swami. Vedic Culture, University of Calcutta, 1947
Narayanasvami Aiyar K. Thirty Minor Upanishads, Akay Book Corporation, Delhi, India, 1979
Radhakrishnan S. The Principal Upanishads, Harper Collins Publishers India, New Delhi, 1997
Satchidananda Murty K. Vedic Hermeneutics, Shri Lal Bahadur Shastri Rashtriya Sanskrit Vidyapeetha, New Delhi, 1993
Notes
1. Ref. to Mahadevananda
Giri, 1947, for an entire panorama of the evolution of Vedic
civilization and culture seen from a perspective of an Indian scholar and
Brahmin that has done extensive research into the field.
2. Ref. to Radhakrishnan S., 1997 for all cited passages regarding
Upanishads translations from Sanskrit to English.
3. The four great sayings (Mahavakyas) of the
Upanishads: could
be translated thus: ‘That you are’, ‘I am Brahma’, ‘Brahma is
consciousness’, ‘Brahma is that Self’.
4. Ref. to Besant A. and Das B. The Bhagavad Gita, 1997 for all cited passages.
5. Ref. to Krishnamacharya E. Book of Rituals, The World
Teacher Trust, Geneva-20, Switzerland, 1990, for a succinct yet comprehensive
account of various yajnas that are still practiced in India today.
6. Ref. to Satyananda Saraswati, Swami, Bhakti Yoga Sagar, the series of six volumes published by
Sivananda Math in India beginning with 1995. It contains references about
yajnas ceremonies of shrauta rite, focusing mainly on the worship of Lord
Rama
and his wife Sita in the Rikhia village, Deoghar district, Jharkhand state in
India.
List of
abbreviations
BG Bhagavad Gita
Br. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad