Globalization and Religion: An Examination of Buddhism on the Internet

NOTE: This page DOES contain information on Japan, but it is really an athropological paper that incorporates examples from Japanese society and religion. This is a research project I assembled for a class I took senior year in college. 'Anthropology 350: Classroom Across the Pacific' was an integrated virtual classroom where William&Mary students worked hand-in-hand with Keio University students in Japan. There were weekly video-conferences, numerous chats, and lectures to cover our research material as well as cover some of the fundamental background in globalization and information technology. Our assignment was to work with a Keio University student partner and develop a research project examining globalization and an issue of our choice. This is the project I designed. The full website that accompanied this information unfortunately died this past summer (no need to keep the work of graduates in the college system! hahaha!). I have all of the information on disk, and may someday get my site up and running again. But until then, please enjoy the basic material of my project, and let me know what you think.

Introduction:

    Religion is as old as culture.  From prehistoric times to the present, religion holds firm the beliefs of people all over the world.  Whether tribal shamans or Catholic cardinals, religious practitioners bear witness to multiple changes and innovations the world over.  These range from wars and political upheavals to new ideologies and emerging technologies.  In many cases religion comes into direct contact with such changes, and many have shaken religious groups at their foundations.  Some crumble and others persevere.  Such a scenario is currently underway.  This time religion is not facing invading barbarians or new cultural ideologies.  Instead, religion now confronts the current innovation of instantaneous global communication, or the Internet.
    Computers, and the fiber optic networks that support them, are creating new problems and potentialities for world religions.  With the Internet comes limitless access to information in multiple languages.  Catholics the world over can watch Papal services from the Vatican just by logging in to a website.  Buddhist scholars and temples can allow their followers free access to sutras by posting them online.  Hindus can teach enthusiasts about their pantheon of gods interactively.  Different religious groups can communicate and spread their ideas like never before.  Groups can archive their histories, provide religious services for those housebound or far from their temples or churches, and evangelize.
    While most people applaud the positive aspects of religion on the Internet, critics continue to describe the negative ramifications such religious freedom could create.  With very few rules and regulations, anyone can post their ideas and opinions on the Internet.  Individuals or groups can display very one-sided or inaccurate information.  Non-specialists or even fanatics can place their speeches, sermons, and tirades on the Internet for anybody to access, download, or print.  Individuals can "flame" or slander various religious leaders and groups.  In all the arenas that the Internet may benefit world religion, it may also bring about harm and negativity.
    Old clashes with new.  In such a modern, technology-driven society, can old beliefs and old practices in many world religions truly coexist with emerging information technology?  The Internet might be changing people's ideas of religion: what they want from it, who they turn to for help or worship, and how they practice various services.  The Internet is making religions evolve and modernize.  They embrace technology by establishing websites, online services, and virtual temples.  The Vatican has its online entity, as do Soka Gakkai, the United Methodist Church, and numerous other religious groups.  New internet-based, high-tech cults are also emerging, as evidenced by the Heaven's Gate cult, whose members committed mass suicide in San Diego a few years ago.
    Religion and information technology are two institutions, one old and the other new, that are meeting head-on at the end of the Twentieth century.  They give and take from each other.  Just as it coped with the innovations of previous historical periods, religion is dealing with the changes of our day and age.  And this is where my project enters the scene.

Research Proposal:

    My project has been specifically linked to the globalization of religion through information technology.  I wanted to investigate the issues involved in how religious groups are utilizing the Internet and information technology.  Since almost anybody can make a website, I was interested in knowing if sites are wholly beneficial and authoritative, or if they lack credibility.  Finally, I wanted to know what services these websites are providing and find out just who is visiting them.
    Since a thorough search of religious sites on the Internet is a vast undertaking, I examined one group in particular -- Japanese Shin Buddhism.  This term covers many Japanese religious groups that believe in the existence of a western Pure Land, but particularly applies to the Jodo Shinshu, or "Perfect Truth" sect.  This sect has spread the world over, and I decided it would be a good group on which to focus.
    I gathered information from three sources: books topical to my subject, Buddhist and Jodo Shinshu websites, and people who visited Buddhist websites and discussion rooms.  I examined official and non-official Jodo Shinshu websites, in both English and Japanese.  I was primarily an observer, noting layout, design, and content of websites.  I used texts, both from the library and online, to help solidify some of my ideas.  While my chats and survey attempts were not very successful, I did get draw a great deal of information from “lurking”, a topic which I will discuss later in my findings section. I used the information I collected to draw some conclusions about the religion-internet relationship as a whole.
    Once I had determined what methods I would use to investigate Shin Buddhism on the Internet, I solidified my goals and posed questions.  I was interested in examining this topic from two main areas: 1) how is Jodo Shinshu utilizing information technology; and, 2) how has this technology changed the traditional aspects of the religion (if at all)?
    Looking at Shin Buddhism as a continuously adapting and modernizing religious ideology, I was very interested in seeing what ramifications the use of information technology might be having on this religion.  Had it created strains?  How have Shin Buddhists adapted to the changes in society without sacrificing part of their religion?
    After an initial search of Jodo Shinshu websites, I was interested in seeing how this relatively new form of an ancient theology has adapted to life with information technology.   I wanted to know how Jodo Shinshu is utilizing the web, and I wanted to discover its motives.  Was Jodo Shinshu using the Internet to advertise their religion, to amass information, or to provide virtual services to their followers?  Was it meeting the demands of its ever broadening group of followers, or was it using its sites as propaganda to win over and influence casual net surfers?
    I also sought to understand what services Jodo Shinshu websites offer.  Websites have so much potential for Shin Buddhist groups.  Followers could access standard and rare religious texts with the click of a mouse button.  They could copy sutras and send them via e-mail to their temples.  They could communicate with other members of their Buddhist community.  Jodo Shinshu could reach out to so many more people.  In this new information age, the only limitation would be access.
    I also wanted to know more about the people who access Jodo Shinshu websites.  Since it is the most popular religious movement in Japan, and has a growing following throughout the world, many of the people accessing the websites probably would be followers.  How many of the website hits came from America, or from teenagers?  The demographics fascinated me, and I wanted to learn more: about the people the services they sought.
    Most importantly, I wanted to know if a temple or religious group could exist solely online.  I would do this by examining existing websites and accessing virtual temples.   I planned to note the good and bad attributes of these various sites, using them to draw conclusions about the layout of Jodo Shinshu websites and the design of the virtual temples.  If time permitted, I planned to make my own virtual temple and see if it could serve people in every way a real, physical temple could.
    My Japanese research partner at Keio University aided in all of my research.  We each gathered necessary information: reference books, links to pertinent websites, and participant interviews.  Through weekly International Video Conferences (IVCs) and periodic e-mails and chats outside of the classroom, we were able to compare data, discuss the issues, and draw our own conclusions about religious groups and the Internet.

Research Partner:

    The research project in "Classroom Across the Pacific" was to be collaboration between a William and Mary student and a Keio student.  The exact role of each student could vary from project to project, but the idea was to have each student take on equal shares of a project dealing with globalization and an issue of choice.  William and Mary's section of the course began almost one full month before its counterpart at Keio.  Therefore, when the Keio students entered the picture, their William and Mary counterparts had already chosen their own topics and had begun researching and designing their web pages.  While there was room for topic alteration in the near future, Keio students had to pick a topic that seemed most interesting to them.  Obviously, the pairings did not always work out perfectly.
    My research partner was Shoko Mikawa.  From the start, she came across as strong-minded, hard-working, and very friendly.  Throughout the semester, Shoko has been a very valuable asset.  Our partnership worked out very well, but things did not start out that way.
    While other Keio and William and Mary students had no trouble reaching a compatible topic, Shoko and I had very different ideas about what we wanted to do.  I had proposed my Globalization and Religion project, but Shoko seemed thoroughly disinterested.  She had her own ideas, and did not want to latch onto my research proposal too easily.
    As of the evening of October 15, Shoko and I had not chatted about our topic.  Shoko and I exchanged no e-mails before the initial IVC.  I sent her several e-mails, but received no responses.  Shoko was unable to attend the first IVC, so I was unable to further develop my research ideas with my partner.  I spent the time conversing with Professor Schoel about my topic.  She provided excellent criticism and added some very poignant information, particularly about evangelism.  The discussion was very beneficial and enabled me to narrow the scope of my research.
    After the IVC, Shoko and I began exchanging e-mails.  I was trying to get my research ideas across to her, and establish a time for a chat session.  Shoko seemed pleased to help me, but not very enthusiastic about my topic.  Shoko kept saying she thought my ideas were interesting, but did not add much in the form of criticism.
    When Shoko and I finally did have our first chat on October 16, 1998, she told me she needed more information.  As Professor Schoel had informed me, the Internet and its educational uses fascinated Shoko, not by religion.  She was involved in a group hoping to develop the first truly online university, where courses, research, and lectures would all take place in a virtual setting.  She wanted to do further research on virtual classrooms, such as the one in which we were participating.
    After several more chats, Shoko and I finally reached an agreement.  I explained that I was interested in the services that online religious sites would provide.  Shoko liked the idea of researching online service industries, and particularly in examining religion.  We agreed to use our projects as case studies in an investigation of Religion and Information Technology.  I would continue examining Buddhist groups on the Internet, and Shoko would tackle the United Methodist community on the Internet.  We would work to design a virtual temple and church service to supplement our findings. Here is a link to her website.
    Once we reached this consensus, Shoko and I began using our chats for more worthwhile discussions.  While we did have topical conversations during the IVCs, we seemed to use this medium mostly for catch up, and for planning future chats.  Our chats outside the virtual classroom tended to fail.  One or the other of us would miss it for some reason or another.  Still, the content of our IVC chats changed very little.  From the beginning, we researched our topics very independently, and this was reflected in the content of our chats.  We discussed some overlying issues, and occasionally mentioned more particular cases, but rarely had serious, analytical conversations about Buddhism, Methodists, or religious content on the Internet.  We kept such thinking on an individual basis.
    Shoko provided me valuable information.  Most of this took the form of links to Buddhist websites.  Shoko scanned Japanese web browsers and located pertinent websites, containing discussion groups, virtual temples, or topical information.  She forwarded me the lists of links, and posted them all on her project website.
    Shoko also plays a role in my conclusion and my final presentation.  Our IVC chats have helped me draw together some of my ideas.  We discussed the various roles and overlying themes of the Buddhist websites.  Shoko also gave me advice about the virtual temple that I was still planning on constructing at the time of our last chat.  Along these lines, Shoko planned to take a few minutes of my presentation to explain her virtual Methodist church service.  We hoped that this would provide an interesting parallel to my virtual temple and compliment my findings.
    Although this does not directly relate to my research topic, I think it would be interesting to include some information about Shoko's and my methods of communication.  We both speak the other's language.  Shoko's English is far superior to my Japanese, but our language skills really came into play during our IVCs.  We would switch back and forth between English and Japanese.  Shoko used English to discuss major points, but I used Japanese for small talk or acknowledging my consent or agreement.  The language switched back and forth, even in the middle of sentences.  Our IVCs tended to start vocally, but quickly shift to chat mode.  Typing in another language is easier than speaking, and, due to certain technological constraints, talking was sometimes an impossibility.  We had to take time to define terms for each other, and work around misunderstandings.  Language stayed informal.  Shoko and I used a highly technological medium to communicate regularly.  Even though we were an ocean apart, Shoko and I saw each other's picture on a video screen, and typing and speaking instantaneously removed cultural inhibitions and allowed us to quickly become acquainted.
    Shoko's and my partnership has proven to be very fulfilling.  She and I have become well acquainted and each of us has been able to expand our cultural understanding and language capabilities.  We shared ideas about religion, aided each other in information gathering, and, by using e-mail and IVCs, broke through the boundaries of inter-cultural communication.

Limitations:

    During the course of this research project, I encountered three primary problems.  These limited the accuracy and depth of my research.  The problems pertained to the research topic, time, and technology.
    Shoko and I spent a great deal of time discussing our topic.  While we were using our chats to determine precisely what we wanted to research, other groups were having topical discussions and using the IVCs to further develop their topics and continue their research.  Because Shoko and I spent so much time making our research topic concrete, we wasted time that could have been spent doing research or discussing more beneficial issues.  The entire debate on our research topic was frustrating, and our conclusion was not a complete consensus -- we decided to pursue more or less independent topics.
    Time also had a profound effect on the project.  William and Mary students got an early start, but could not commit fully to their research designs until they had conversed with their partners at Keio.  They did not occur until one month into William and Mary's fall semester.  The first month was put to good use because of the theoretical lectures Dr. Hamada delivered and the Internet workshops designed by Charles Green and Lisa Dickson.  Despite this solid foundation, the brevity of the semester resulted in research and conclusions below my initial expectations.
    The time zone difference also had an obvious effect on the project.  With a fourteen hour time difference, scheduling times for chats outside of the IVC proved extremely difficult.  When it was late evening for one of us, it was early morning for the other.  Even though Shoko and I were able to decide on times to log on and chat, one or both of us tended to miss these appointments.
    I encountered a great deal of technological limitations.  On more than one occasion, I was not able to begin my IVC with Shoko until 30 minutes after the first student in our class had started chatting.  In those instances, valuable time was lost.  During the IVCs, the background noise in the room and at Keio made talking impossible.  Instead, Shoko and I used the chat function of Microsoft Net Meeting.  Also, my personal computer lagged behind many of the lab computers.  With little free memory, and a small hard drive to begin with, it prevented me from undertaking larger portions of my project from my room.  That meant that I was subject to the availability of lab computers.
    The biggest technological problem I faced was using Japanese websites.  While I could access the sites easily, the Japanese fonts were unintelligible on the computers I used.  I attempted downloading Japanese language programs and fonts, but had a great deal of difficulty getting them to work in the labs.  My own computer could not support such software.  Therefore, the Japanese language websites that I could actually access were very limited, and my conclusions are based largely on the information contained in American or English language websites.

Globalization -- a definition:

    I realize that before I enter into my thoughts and findings, I should clearly define the term "globalization" and describe how it applies to my project. For this answer, I consulted the definitions and theories of scholars.
    Globalization is a difficult term to define. Robertson (1992:8) defines globalization as a "compression of the world and the intensification of consciousness of the world as a whole". Although it is a rather old concept, it has not been put to use and fully discussed until it was applied to the academic discussion of modernity. Whether spawned by the Ayatollah Khomeini's denunciation of Salman Rushdie's The Satanic Verses (Beyer 1994: 1) or Marshall McLuhan's concept of 'the global village (Robertson 1992: 8),' the discussion on globalization is a rather recent phenomenon. It is an awareness of events and cultures the world over. Globalization is not only a spread of ideas, but interactions -- a realization that one can communicate around the world, break old boundaries, and go anywhere. The local community is no longer the entire universe. Beyer states that "we live in a globalizing social reality...in which previously effective boundaries no longer exist (1994: 1)".
    In the 1990s, social theory and analysis cannot ignore the concept of globalization.  It is a trend that has ramifications throughout society, whether it be through heightened awareness of cultural or international issues, unlimited access to information, or instantaneous global communication.  "Increasingly, there is a common social environment shared by all people on earth and...this globality conditions a great deal of what happens here, including how we form theories (Beyer 1994: 7)."  Academia has not ignored the concept, and globalization is apparent in multiple disciplines from the social sciences and humanities to natural sciences.  At the forefront of globalization research and experimentation is information technology, and when average people or non-technical organizations begin utilizing this medium, new trends emerge.
    This concept relates to my own interpretation of the term 'globalization'.  My definition relates to Robertson's. I see globalization as a heightened awareness that one is merely a part of a bigger, worldwide system. It is seeing that yours is not the only country or ideology in the world. It is open-mindedness and acceptance of other cultures.  Globalization is an awareness of the peoples, cultures, and ideologies of the world, and it is all achieved through the absorption of media-based information.
    The process of globalization started centuries ago.  Humans have been walking farther and gathering information for all of recorded history.  As technology evolved, the means for communicating and spreading information simply got faster.  When the telegraph first appeared at the beginning of the 20th century, people used it to send greetings to friends, utilizing the novel technology.  When e-mail first appeared, it had much the same reaction.
    Media-based information is becoming increasingly limitless.  Television changed the way we communicate and absorb information, broadcasting live events across the world to millions of viewers.  Now the Internet has expanded the flow of information, utilizing vast computer mainframes and even home computer hard drives for the storage and transfer of information around the world.  All these media have helped humans gather more information than ever before.  Levy stated that “vision is the emerging and global aspect of listening (1997: 76).”  Through observing and listening to these media, mankind is achieving global awareness, a global vision, through technology.
    Religion has obvious connections to globalization -- it is a global idea. Throughout history, religious mindsets and ideologies have transcended borders and nationality. Religion structured entire societies, regardless of ethnic background. It influenced politics, economics, and culture. And it has held sway over world events. With this kind of power and presence, religion is truly a global issue.
    A particular religion, however, draws its power from the number of followers it is able to attract and keep. To attract more members, a religion must publicize itself.  Information technology is an enticing advertising medium.  With few restrictions in affect for the Internet, religious groups are free to post and publish as they please.  Buddhist groups are no exception to this movement.
    Buddhism has been globalizing for centuries.  At first it was in the form of missions and emissaries traveling between India and China.  The Indian monks were spreading their interpretations of the teachings of the Buddha, and their Chinese students were coming to India to collect scripture, artwork, and information.  As Buddhism spread, so did the missions.  These grew to include Koreans, Japanese, Thai, and Sri Lankans, among others.  Foot traffic spread Buddhist ideas and information across borders, and throughout world cultures.  Similar ideologies and lifestyles were transcending nationalities and thriving all over the Asian continent.
    The next stage in Buddhist globalization occurred in the 1800s.  The connections throughout Asia had grown old and faded, and, by the 19th century, Buddhist groups were becoming increasingly diversified and specialized.  By the 1850s public debates between Buddhist and Christian groups were occurring in Sri Lanka and England.  In 1880 two prominent Western theosophists visited Sri Lanka, then Ceylon, to preserve Buddhist heritage and spread Buddhist education (Bechert 1984: 274).  This marked the beginning of the great Buddhist resurgence of the 1800s.  The movement continued as Western scholars and religious figures paid more attention to Buddhist doctrines and groups.  Various Buddhist studies groups were formed by the theosophists, including the Young Men's Buddhist Association, modeled on the Young Men's Christian Association.  More and more Western scholars were studying Buddhist history and thought, and several Westerners even studied to become monks and nuns.  This time imperialism was the force that further set Buddhist globalization in motion.  As Western powers spread across the globe, expanding shipping lanes and international commerce, various ideas, including Buddhism, accompanied the physical goods back to home ports around the world.
    Buddhism's next step is on the Internet.  Information technology is the next threshold.  As mentioned above, on the Internet, information is instantaneously sent across the globe.  Naturally religious ideas hold a place amongst the enormity of information surging through buried fiber optic cables and bouncing off of satellites orbiting the Earth.  The Internet will allow Buddhism to spread like never before.  Information will be easier to gather than ever before.  Like the foot-traveling monks of ancient China and India, and like the sea-faring merchants and educated elite of Western Imperialist nations, computer technology will provide the means for Buddhism to transcend borders, regardless of language, culture, and time zone.

Shin Buddhism and my research:

    Japan has a tradition of adopting ideas and technology and molding them into something uniquely Japanese. Unlike other East Asian cultures, Japan was only temporarily overwhelmed by Chinese culture. It imported what it wanted, and chose what it wanted to adopt into its own culture. Buddhism was one of those ideas. It had come all the way from India, had further developed in China, and started another evolution in Japan. Buddhist ideology blossomed under the patronage of various princes, lords, and monks. With these ideas and developments came new schools of thought, one of which was Shin Buddhism.
    Shinran (1173-1262) founded Jodo Shinshu and started the entire Shin Buddhist movement. He trained as a monk at the Tendai sect's sacred Mt. Hiei just north of Kyoto. After faithfully studying the Tendai sect's monastic practices for twenty years, Shinran felt he was going nowhere. He felt incapable of reaching enlightenment through the hours of study and strict meditation associated with self power, or jiriki, which the Tendai sect strictly enforced.
    Shinran left the mountain monasteries to study under Honen Shonin (1133-1212). Honen had started a movement within Buddhism that focused entirely on reciting the nembutsu, or 'Namu Amida Butsu'. This invocation voiced one's utter faith in the almighty power and compassion of the Bodhisattva Amitabha, or Amida as the Japanese call him. This idea was revolutionary because it abandoned the idea of attaining enlightenment through individual study and meditation. Honen and Shinran believed that in the current Age of Mappo, humanity was tainted and too far removed from the Buddha's teaching to truly attain enlightenment. They believed that only in Amida's Pure Land would humans be able to focus, realize the truth in the dharma, and reach nirvana. Honen's Jodo Shu sect followed tariki, or other power.
    All tariki comes from Amida. Before he attained nirvana, Bodhisattva Dharmahara made 42 vows. These are called the Original Vow.  In his 18th Vow, Dharmahara postponed nirvana and declared he would help all humankind, thus becoming the Bodhisattva Amida:
                When I have attained Buddhahood, if those beings in the ten quarters, who, believing in Me, heart and soul,
                should wish to be born in My Country (Pure Land), and should repeat My name ten times, if they should not
                be born in My Country, may I not attain Perfect Enlightenment (Kyosho).
Shinran believed wholly in the message in Amida's 18th Vow. In Amida's Western Paradise, humans can be reborn and concentrate on enlightenment, away from the suffering of the world. Through tariki, Amida provides a place were humans can escape suffering and concentrate on jiriki and attaining enlightenment.
    In his 19th Vow, Amida mentions “performing virtuous deeds (Dobbins 1989: 28).”  Shinran interpreted this to mean that anyone could be reborn in the Pure Land by committing various good deeds and acts of kindness.  Amida mentioned “cultivating the basis of all virtue” in his 20th Vow.  Shinran took this as a reference to the recitation of the nembutsu, for the nembutsu represented all that was virtuous and good (Dobbins 1989: 28).
    Shinran and his teachings became very popular among the common people. Few Japanese could afford to undertake a monastic lifestyle. Amida and tariki afforded a chance of a better rebirth for the Japanese person who was too busy to meditate and copy sutras all day. Shinran founded the Jodo Shinshu, or Perfect Truth sect. Shinran based his teachings on the 18th, 19th, and 20th Vows.  He also incorporated the Three Pure Land Sutras: the Larger Sutra on the Buddha of the Infinite life (Daikyo), the Sutra of Meditation on the Buddha of Infinite life (Kangyo), and the Smaller Sutra on the Buddha of Infinite Life (Shokyo)(Dobbins1989: 3).
    Honen and Shinran had many enemies.  Monks from other sects, particularly the Tendai, denied the Honen's exclusive nembutsu teachings.  Shin Buddhism was growing increasingly popular, winning over more converts and followers, particularly in the country.  During his training under Honen, Shinran married a nun and had five children.  Shinran called himself “neither priest nor layman (Dobbins 1989:26).  His faith in the nembutsu convinced him that he would be forgiven for breaking priestly code to marry and have a family.  He was continuing his bloodline and his teachings, and marriage simply strengthened his faith in the gracious power of Amida.  Shinran's marriage had only helped to prove what many monks believed to be the effects of Honen's heinous teachings.  Eventually the government and grand temples won out, and Honen and Shinran were sent into exile.  Shinran was sent to Echigo province and never saw his master again.
    During exile, Shinran began to build his power base.  Among the rural farmers and peasantry, exclusive nembutsu gained strength because of its simplicity.  He moved to the Kanto region in 1212, and there built the bulk of his followers.  Much of his group's success stemmed from its organization into dojos, or meeting places.  In such small groups, followers would meet to discuss the teachings of Shinran and the power of Amida.
    While living in the Kanto, Shinran wrote his most revered work, the 'Kyogyoshinsho'.  It focused on four principles: Teaching (kyo), Practice (gyo), Faith (shin), and Enlightenment (sho).  The first three terms were strongly evident in Buddhist teaching during Shinran's lifetime, describing the facets mandatory for reaching salvation.   Shinran added the fourth, faith, in reference to Jodo Shinshu's unwavering faith in the nembutsu and Amida's vow.  This was the most important facet in Shinran's eyes, for it led to rebirth in the Pure Land directly (Dobbins 1989: 30).
    After many years, Shinran returned to Kyoto, where he lived until his death in 1262.  The majority of his support came from the Kanto region and Echigo, but Shinran remained in the imperial capital and published many works, written both in Chinese and in Japanese. After Shinran's death, his successor's continued his teachings.  Among them, two stand out: Kakunyo and Rennyo. Kakunyo raised Shinran to founding father status, transformed Shinran's tomb and the Otani memorial into an official temple, the Honganji, and established a hereditary lineage for the Honganji (Dobbins 1989: 81).
    During the following centuries Jodo Shinshu experienced competition from other Buddhist sects, particularly other new schools like Nichiren and Zen.  New sects were formed, each with new