1. Review the Brief Chapter Summary.
2. Answer and submit the Learning Objectives. Write the question and then the answer.
3. Complete and submit the Learning Activity. Write the question and then the answer.
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
During Piaget's concrete operational stage, from about age 7 to 11, thought becomes more logical, flexible, and
organized than in early childhood. This is seen in children's grasp of concepts like conservation, classification, and
seriation, as well as improvements in spatial reasoning. However, children cannot yet think abstractly: Their
organized, logical thinking is limited to concrete, directly perceived information. Cross-cultural findings indicate that
mastery of Piagetian tasks does not emerge spontaneously but, rather, is dependent on specific cultural and school
practices. Information-processing research helps explain the gradual mastery of logical concepts, challenging Piaget’s
assumption of an abrupt, stagewise transition to logical thought.
Brain development leads to gains in information-processing speed and capacity, as well as in inhibition, which
facilitate diverse aspects of thinking. Information-processing research reveals that attention becomes more selective,
adaptable, and planful, and use of memory strategies, such as rehearsal and organization, becomes more effective.
Children learn much about planning by collaborating with more expert planners. By the end of the school years,
children start to use elaboration, which contributes to improvements in memory. However, the value of memory
strategies depends on cultural circumstances: It is limited to societies in which children learn through formal
schooling.
Children's theory of mind, or metacognition, becomes much more elaborate and refined in middle childhood,
increasing children's ability to reflect on their own mental life. School-age children, unlike preschoolers, regard the
mind as an active, constructive agent and are conscious of mental inferences and mental strategies. Still, school-age
children have difficulty with cognitive self-regulation - monitoring their progress toward a goal and redirecting
unsuccessful efforts. In both reading and mathematics, academic instruction that combines an emphasis on meaning
and understanding with training in basic skills may be most effective.
Intelligence tests for children measure overall IQ as well as separate intellectual factors. Sternberg's triarchic
theory of intelligence defines three broad, interacting intelligences (analytical, creative, and practical); intelligent
behavior involves balancing all three. Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences highlights at least eight independent
intelligences, including several not measured by IQ scores. And Goleman's concept of emotional intelligence refers
to emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information, so that they can act
wisely in social situations.
Heritability estimates and adoption research shows that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to
individual differences in intelligence. Because of different communication styles and lack of familiarity with test
content, IQ scores of low-SES ethnic minority children often do not reflect their true abilities. Stereotype threat also
has a negative effect. Supplementing IQ tests with measures of adaptive behavior and adjusting testing procedures to
account for cultural differences - for example, through dynamic assessment - can reduce test bias.
Language development continues during the school years, although changes are less dramatic than in early
childhood. At this age, children develop metalinguistic awareness - the ability to think about language as a system.
Vocabulary increases rapidly, and pragmatic skills are refined. Bilingual children are advanced in cognitive
development and, specifically, in metalinguistic awareness.
Schools are powerful forces in childre's development. Class size, the school's educational philosophy,
teacher–pupil interaction, grouping practices, and the way computers are used in classrooms all affect motivation and
achievement in middle childhood. Teachers face special challenges in meeting the needs of children who have
learning difficulties as well as those with special intellectual strengths. North American students have fared unevenly
in recent international comparisons of academic achievement. Efforts are currently underway to upgrade the quality
of North American education.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
12.1 Describe the major characteristics of concrete operational thought, including cognitive limitations during
this stage. (pp. 437c440)
12.2 Discuss recent research on concrete operational thought, noting the implications of recent findings for the
accuracy of Piaget’s concrete operational stage. (pp. 440-442)
12.3 Cite basic changes in information processing during middle childhood. (pp. 442-443)
12.4 Describe changes in attention and memory during middle childhood. (pp. 443-447)
12.5 Describe the school-age child’s theory of mind and capacity to engage in cognitive self-regulation.
(pp. 447-449)
12.6 Discuss applications of information processing to acedemic learning, noting current controversies over
teaching reading and mathematics to elementary school children. (pp. 449-452)
12.7 Describe the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-IV, the two
scales most commonly used to assess intelligence in school-age children. (pp. 452-454)
12.8 Discuss recent developments in defining intelligence, including Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful
intelligence and Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. (pp. 454-456)
12.9 Cite evidence indicating that both heredity and environment contribute to intelligence. (pp. 456-458)
12.10 Describe cultural influences on intelligence test performance, and discuss efforts to overcome cultural bias
in intelligence testing. (pp. 458-461)
12.11 Summarize changes in metalinguistic awareness, vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatics during middle
childhood. (pp. 462-464)
12.12 Discuss the major issues surrounding bilingual development and bilingual education, noting the advantages
of bilingualism in childhood. (pp. 464-465)
12.13 Discuss the impact of class size, educational philosophies, teacher-student interaction, and grouping
practices on student motivation and academic achievement. (pp. 466-470)
12.14 Describe educational benefits of computer use as well as concerns about computers. (p. 471)
12.15 Summarize the conditions under which placement of mildly mentally retarded and learning disabled
children in regular classrooms is successful. (p. 472)
12.16 Describe the characteristics of gifted children, and discuss current efforts to meet their educational needs.
(pp. 472-474)
12.17 Compare the North American cultural climate for academic achievement with that of other industrialized
nations. (pp. 474-476)
Learning Acitivity: No activity for this module at this time. Just send an email for this assignment saying:
No Learning Activity required for Module 12.