1. Review the Brief Chapter Summary.
2. Answer and submit the Learning Objectives. Write the question and then the answer.
3. Complete and submit the Learning Activity. Write the question and then the answer.
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
According to Erikson, the combination of adult expectations and children's drive toward mastery sets the stage for the
psychosocial conflict of middle childhood, industry versus inferiority. It is resolved positively when experiences lead
children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks. During middle childhood, psychological traits
and social comparisons appear in childre's self-concepts, and a hierarchically organized self-esteem emerges.
Attribution research has identified adult communication styles that affect children's explanations for success and
failure and, in turn, their academic self-esteem, motivation, and task performance. Gains occur in self-conscious
emotions, understanding of emotional states, and emotional self-regulation. Cognitive maturity and social
experiences support gains in perspective-taking skill. An expanding social world, the capacity to consider more
information when reasoning, and perspective taking all promote great improvements in moral understanding during
middle childhood.
By the end of middle childhood, children form peer groups, which give them insight into larger social structures.
Friendships become more complex and psychologically based, with a growing emphasis on mutual trust and
assistance. Researchers have identified four categories of peer acceptance: popular, rejected, controversial, and
neglected children. Peer acceptance is a powerful predictor of current and future psychological adjustment. Rejected
children tend to engage in antisocial behavior that leads agemates to dislike them. During the school years, boys'
masculine gender identities strengthen, whereas girls' identities become more flexible and androgynous. Cultural
values and parental attitudes influence these trends.
In middle childhood, the amount of time children spend with parents declines dramatically. Child rearing shifts
toward coregulation as parents grant children more decision-making power while still retaining general oversight.
Sibling rivalry tends to increase in middle childhood, and siblings often attempt to reduce it by striving to be different
from one another. Only children are no less well-adjusted than children with siblings and are advantaged in selfesteem
and achievement motivation. Children of gay and lesbian parents are well-adjusted, and the large majority are
heterosexual. The situations of children in never-married, single-parent families can be improved by strengthening
social support, education, and employment opportunities for parents.
When children experience divorce - often followed by entry into blended families as a result of remarriage -
child, parent, and family characteristics all influence how well they fare. Growing up in a dual-earner family can have
many benefits for school-age children, particularly when mothers enjoy their work, when work settings and
communities support parents in their child-rearing responsibilities, and when high-quality child care is available,
including appropriate after-school programs as an alternative to self-care.
As children experience new demands in school and begin to understand the realities of the wider world, their
fears and anxieties are directed toward new concerns, including physical safety, media events, academic performance,
parents' health, and peer relations. Child sexual abuse has devastating consequences for children and is especially
difficult to treat. Personal characteristics of children, a warm, well-organized home life, and the presence of social
supports outside the immediate family are related to the development of resilience - the ability to cope with stressful
life conditions.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
13.1 Explain EriksonŐs stage of industry versus inferiority, noting major personality changes. (pp. 481-482)
13.2 Describe school-age childrenŐs self-concept and self-esteem, and discuss factors that affect their
achievement-related attributions. (pp. 482-488)
13.3 Cite changes in the expression and understanding of emotion in middle childhood. (pp. 489-491)
13.4 Trace the development of perspective taking in middle childhood, and discuss the relationship between
perspective taking and social skills. (pp. 491-492)
13.5 Describe changes in moral understanding during middle childhood, including childrenŐs understanding of
diversity and inequality. (pp. 492-497)
13.6 Describe changes in peer sociability during middle childhood, including characteristics of peer groups and
friendships and the contributions of each to social development. (pp. 497-499)
13.7 Describe the four categories of peer acceptance, noting how each is related to social behavior, and discuss
ways to help rejected children. (pp. 500-503)
13.8 Summarize changes in gender-stereotyped beliefs and gender identity during middle childhood, noting sex
differences and cultural influences. (pp. 503-505)
13.9 Discuss changes in parent-child communication during middle childhood. (pp. 506-507)
13.10 Describe changes in sibling relationships during middle childhood, and compare the experiences and
developmental outcomes of only children with those of children with siblings. (pp. 507-508)
13.11 Describe gay and lesbian families, and discuss the developmental outcomes of children raised in such
families. (p. 508)
13.12 Describe the characteristics of never-married, single-parent families, and explain how living in a single parent
household affects children. (p. 512)
13.13 Explain childrenŐs adjustment to divorce and blended families, noting the influence of parent and child
characteristics and social supports within the family and surrounding community. (pp. 509-514)
13.14 Discuss the impact of maternal employment and dual-earner families on school-age childrenŐs development,
noting the influence of environmental supports, and summarize research on child care for school-age
children. (pp. 514-516)
13.15 Discuss common fears and anxieties in middle childhood. (pp. 516-517)
13.16 Discuss factors related to child sexual abuse, its consequences for childrenŐs development, and its prevention
and treatment. (pp. 517-519)
13.17 Cite factors that foster resilience in middle childhood. (pp. 519-522)
LEARNING ACTIVITY 13.1: Self-Concept and Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood (pp. 482-488)
Locate two school-age children and pose the following question: ŇHow would you describe
yourself?Ó Record each answer and compare it to research on the development of self-concept and
self-esteem in middle childhood. For example, what traits did the children emphasize? What evaluative information did they include? Did older school-age children describe separate self-evaluations? Explain.