1. Review the Brief Chapter Summary.
2. Answer and submit the Learning Objectives. Write the question and then the answer.
3. Complete and submit the Learning Activity. Write the question and then the answer.
BRIEF CHAPTER SUMMARY
During Piaget's formal operational stage, young people develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific
thinking. They become capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning, in which they begin with a hypothesis, or
prediction, from which they deduce logical inferences. Piaget used the term propositional thought to describe
adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of verbal statements without referring to real-world circumstances. However,
follow-up research reveals that school-age children already have some capacity for hypothetico-deductive reasoning,
although they are less competent at it than adolescents. And many adults do not fully achieve formal operational
thinking. Cross-cultural research challenges Piaget's view of formal operations as a universal change in cognition that
results from adolescents' independent efforts to make sense of their world. Rather, it may be a culturally transmitted
way of reasoning specific to literate societies and fostered by school experiences.
According to the information-processing perspective, cognitive change in adolescence is based on specific
mechanisms supported by brain development and experience, including selective attention, improved inhibition, more
effective strategies, increased knowledge, expanded metacognition, improved cognitive self-regulation, and increased
thinking and processing speed. Metacognition, in particular, is central to adolescent cognitive development.
Adolescent cognitive changes lead to dramatic revisions in the ways adolescents see themselves, others, and the
larger world. They develop distorted images of the relationship between self and other and are able to construct
visions of ideal worlds. The dramatic cognitive changes of adolescence are reflected in many aspects of everyday
behavior, including self-consciousness and self-focusing, idealism and criticism, and difficulties with planning and
decision making.
Although boys and girls do not differ in general intelligence, they do vary in specific mental abilities. Throughout
adolescence, girls continue to score higher than boys on tests of verbal ability, while boys continue to have an
advantage in mathematical performance. These differences are related to heredity but also reflect cultural factors,
including social pressures.
Language development continues during adolescence, in subtle but important ways that are influenced by
improvements in metalinguistic awareness - the ability to think about language as a system. Vocabulary expands as
adolescents add many abstract words. They also master irony and sarcasm, figurative language, and more complex
grammatical constructions. As a result, communication skills improve.
School transitions create adjustment problems for adolescents, especially girls. Teenagers who must cope with
added stresses are at greatest risk for adjustment problems following school change. Enhanced support from parents,
teachers, and peers eases the strain of school transition. Academic achievement reflects both personal traits and
environmental factors, including child-rearing styles, parent-school partnerships, peer influences, and the
responsiveness of school environments. A significant number of young people, more often boys than girls, drop out of
school, often with dire consequences. School dropout is related to a variety of student, family, school, and community
characteristics that undermine chances for success.
During late adolescence, young people face a major life decision: the choice of a suitable work role. Young
people move through several periods of vocational development: a fantasy period in early and middle childhood, a
tentative period in early adolescence, and finally a realistic period in which they narrow their options and take steps to
enter a career. Factors influencing adolescents' vocational choices include personality, family, teachers, and gender
stereotypes in the larger social environment, as well as access to vocational information. High-quality vocational
preparation for non-college-bound adolescents is scarce in North America compared with some European nations. A
national apprenticeship system would improve the transition to work for those who terminate their education with a
high school diploma.
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
15.1 Describe the major characteristics of formal operational thought. (pp. 566Ð567)
15.2 Discuss recent research on formal operational thought and its implications for the accuracy of PiagetÕs
formal operational stage. (pp. 567Ð569)
15.3 Explain how information-processing researchers account for the development of abstract thought during
adolescence. (p. 569)
LEARNING ACTIVITY 15.9: Phases of Vocational Development (p. 589)
Locate a child, adolescent, and adult for an interview on vocational development. The following questions can help guide the interview:
¥ For children: ÒWhat do you want to be when you grow up, and why?Ó
¥ For adolescents: ÒWhat are your career plans?Ó ÒWhy have you chosen this particular career path?Ó
¥ For adults: ÒWhat is your present career?Ó or ÒWhat are your career plans?Ó ÒWhy did you choose this
particular career path?Ó ÒDo you see yourself changing careers in the future? If so, why?Ó
You can also describe how your vocational choices or preferences have changed over
time. Next, compare the answers with the phases of vocational development described in the text. Did
the interviews reveal age-related differences in vocational choice? Were students surprised by any of their findings?
Did your own vocational development move through these phases? Explain.