Kris R.
June 4, 2001
Abstract
The intent of this experiment was to explore the relationship
between kinesthetic stimulation and the anticipation of cognitive
impairment. The experiment had two sets of subjects. The experimental
group received stimulation from electrodes on the sternocleidomastoid
muscle on the back of the neck. The control group did not. Subjects
were given an intelligence test of 10 questions and asked to solve
5 puzzles, while being under a time constraint. The results showed
that there is little overall effect of the kinesthetic stimulation
on the subject's cognitive ability to process information. Yet
there is an effect if perceived to be one. It was determined
that the anticipation of the stimulation on the cognitive processes
did have a direct effect on the thought process of the subjects.
Introduction
Throughout our lives we take many forms and variations of
intelligence tests proving to test cognitive ability. Ever since
Alfred Binet's first intelligent test others have followed attempting
to measure level of intelligence. Today psychology looks for
links between physiology and mental functions. This study is looking
at the muscles being stimulated and ability to function cognitively.
Previous studies have attempted to link physiological and other
mental processes. One study analyzed unilateral vibrotactile stimulation
to either the left or right ventral forearm (Bassel and Schiff
2001). Half the participants in the experiment received a stimulation
of the muscles and the other half did not. Each group was asked
to complete all experimental tasks. These tasks included attempting
to solve insolvable puzzles; the experimenters attempted to determine
which group had a greater persistence in solving the puzzles.
They found that the control and experimental groups were not as
different as the group who had their right side stimulated from
those who had left-side stimulation. The group who received right-side
stimulation were more persistent in solving the puzzles and they
also made more positive judgments than those did in the left side
group. Another study experimented with constant versus rhythmic
muscle tension in applied tension (Bodycoat, Gravavg, Olson, and
Page 2000). The researchers studied the effects on stotolic and
diastolic blood pressure, by using either constant or rhythmic
tension under three different breathing rates. This experiment
showed that the rhythmic tension was significantly more effective
than constant tension at raising diastolic blood pressure. The
change of tension causes a change in blood pressure. Comparatively,
the particular contribution of neck muscle spindles and the perception
of body orientation to the oculomotor system was examined (Strupp,
Arbusow, Dieterich, Sautier, and Brandt, 1998). The results showed
an increase in asymmetrical, restricted functioning to the affected
side and gradually built up over the weeks. The perceived effects
during vibration were secondary to changes in the eye position.
Next they determined whether or not the movement predictability
on regional cerebral blood flow was affected when it was self-initiated
or extremely triggered. The results showed that the self-initiated
movement triggered different brain parts than when triggered by
experimenters. The anticipation of the cognitive impairment is
similar to the next experiment because it also tested neck muscles
flexion. Others have studied the activities of neck muscles underlying
lateral flexion of the neck (Akaike, Ohno, and Tsubokawa, 1989).
The neck muscles were stimulated by use of the caudate nucleus
and then analyzed with reference to temporal relations between
the onset of head turning. Finally a team of researchers explored
the relationship between vertebral representations and egocentric
space (Bottini, Karnath, Vallar, Sterzi, Frith, Frackowiak, and
Paulesu, 2001). Their study showed how different sensory inputs,
including kinesthesia, play a part in the internal representation
of space. They studied the representation of space with involving
different sensory inputs. The experimenters took measurements
of cerebral blood flow in 6 normal males. They found that somatosensory
areas of the perisylvian cortex receive signals from both sensory
channels. Meaning that the vibration of the neck did increase
the blood flow. However, they did this experiment in order to
determine if there was any relation to turning your head. My
experiment will look into the cognitive impairment and the cognitive
processes. It was done to determine if there is any relation to
the distractions that one has around us, such as stimulation and
the anticipation of it.
The study of sensations originating in muscles, tendons and joints
is kinesiology. While thinking, conceiving, and reasoning you
are using cognition. This was tested by the intelligence test,
which asked subjects to think and reason out the multiple-choice
answers. The cognitive processes that this experiment tests are
problem solving, speed-accuracy trade off. The muscles in the
neck, sterniomastiod (below the cranium and above the shoulders)
were forced to contract and expand by the electrodes on a level
of 8 out of possible 40. The electrodes were placed on the neck
and the stimulator had the ability to vary the electronic stimulation.
The highest a person could be stimulated was 40. The lowest was
a 1. The setting of 8 was high enough that they could feel the
muscle stimulation, but low enough so that there was no pain.
This was the stimulation used in my experiment.
Experiment
What is the effect of kinesthetic stimulation on the anticipation
of cognitive impairment? The null hypothesis would be that the
subjects in both the experimental and control groups would score
the same whether or not they were stimulated. In the control group
it would take only 1/3 of the time for a subject to adapt to the
stimulation. Theoretically to operationalize my hypothesis I would
need to get the same number of people in each group and test them
in a kinesthetic lab. After having them in the same environment
they would be hooked up to a technologically advanced computer
system that would measure the amount of stimulation that was being
applied to the neck and asked to complete the intelligence test
and puzzles. The two different groups would be compared to the
amount of muscle stimulation seen by the computer. The test would
last about an hour per subject to see if there was really any
effect on the stimulation. Unfortunately the ability to do this
was not possible so this experiment was set instead. The independent
variable is the stimulation. The dependent variable is the cognitive
processes as measured by time.
Methods/Procedure
The groups of people being tested were divided into 2 groups,
an experimental and control group. The subjects in the experimental
group were screened for previous neurological problems including
epilepsy. Concluding that there was no possible physical or psychological
danger, the subject was then connected to an electrical stimulator
on their sterniomastoid. The test that was given to all subjects
was a collection of simple questions that could be found on any
intelligence test (see APPENDIX A) and both groups were asked
to take it. Along with taking the intelligence test, they were
asked to piece together puzzles while being timed.
The experimental group and control group included a random sample
of students from high school between the ages of 16-18. This study
took 30 subjects and used 15 as the control group and 15 as the
experimental group. All students were given the exact same intelligence
test and were asked to do all puzzles in the same order.
There are four confounding variables that could throw off the
results. First, was a standard environment. Subjects may have
had possible distractions. So most were tested in a self-enclosed
environment. A second confounding variable was time of day so
subjects were tested between 12 P.M. and 1 P.M., however this
was not possible for every student. All subjects being experimented
were told that there was no time limit, however they may have
felt that time was a restriction. The fact that they felt rushed
should be eliminated with clear, concise instructions by the experimenter.
Due to the time constraints in completing the study, students
were only tested on 15 cognitive centered questions; the number
should have been expanded. But, it was necessary to use a short
version for this experiment.
Results
The results of this experiment were as follows:
Control group:
Intelligence Test Average time in seconds to complete puzzles
6 140.4
4 150
9 112.4
7 118.8
4 118.8
5 126.4
9 135.2
7 114.8
6 136.2
5 150.6
8 132.2
8 159
4 156.8
6 72.2
3 95
The graph above shows that there is not a direct correlation between the average time and the number correct on the test. The correlation coefficient that was found was .03. The standard deviation (which tells how far from the norm scores fall) graph below shows that there is a wide range of scores and also a wide range of time. The actual standard deviation is 2.06. The mean was 6.07. The median was 6 and the mode was 4 and 6. The standard deviation means that if a person scored between a 4 and 8, they fell within the norm.
Experimental group:
Intelligence Test Average time in seconds to complete puzzles
7 109.4
5 141
7 143.2
4 77
6 112.2
7 123
6 130
6 72.2
3 95
4 131.8
4 144.2
8 92.4
8 117.4
7 112.8
6 127.8
The graph above shows when a student was hooked up to the electrodes there was no direct correlation between the number correct and the average time (sec.). The correlation coefficient that was found with the experimental group was .01. The standard deviation for the experimental group differs from the control group because the scores fell closer to the mean. There were fewer higher scores and fewer lower scores because of the electronic stimulation. The standard deviation that was found for the experimental group was 1.68. The mean was 5.87. The experimental group scored lower, though the difference was not statistically significant. The median was 6, and the mode was 6 and 7. This means that if a person scored between 7.55 and 4.19, they would fall within the norm. The graph below shows the relationship between the control group and the experimental group. The first question is the only one that has a considerable amount of students getting wrong in the experimental group. There was a significant difference between 5 and 10 people getting question #1 correct. The reason for this could be the initial stimulation might have the subjects not thinking or using their cognitive processes as they did through the rest of the test. After the initial stimulation the following questions were approximately equal to both the experimental and control group. After the experiment was completed most subjects determined that the initial anticipation of the stimulation was worse than the actual stimulation.
Discussion
From the results of the first graph, we can determine that
there is a very small relationship between the number correct
and the average time. The correlation coefficient of +. 03 tells
that there is not a significant trend. This means that the higher
your score on the intelligence test does not mean that the least
amount time that was taken on the puzzles. However, the time that
it took to complete the test and puzzles did not play a factor
in the lower scores between the experimental and control groups.
According to the control group frequency graph, there was a slightly
wider range of scores. One can also see that the highest score
on the intelligence test does not mean that it was the lowest
average in seconds for the puzzle. Similarly, the lower scores
on the test did not necessarily have the highest average.
In both frequency graphs, there was not a bell curve. The standard
deviation in both graphs showed that there was a large range for
students to fall into in order to be considered within the norm.
The standard deviation of 2.06 and 1.68 shows that there is a
wider variance among scores and times for the control group though
our sample was not large enough to create the normal score and
time on the tests. The sample needs to be increased to get a more
accurate standard deviation.
Many students were more frightened to have the muscle stimulator
start then they were to take the test. This could be reason for
many people getting a number of questions wrong when debriefed.
The experimental subjects admitted they were just circling the
first few answers to circle them. There was no real thinking,
or use of their cognitive processes. The greatest factor in the
experiment was the expectations of the students as many of them
incorrectly answered question number 1. The initial shock of the
stimulator caused them to circle a random answer, however eventually
they quickly adapted.
The hypothesis predicted that the subjects hooked up to electronic
stimulation would score less and take more time on the puzzles.
From the data in the graphs with correlation of .03 and .01, our
hypothesis was disproven.
This experiment could be replicated in the future by testing
more subjects in a wider age range. Also, by testing different
muscles and joints that are affected by kinesthetic movement the
experimenter could see how what the difference is with stimulating
different body parts. To find out if the kinesthetic stimulation
affects the cognitive processes at all, the experimenter would
need to test the stimulator on different parts, such as, the calf
muscles or the muscles on a person's back. Also, it would be possible
to compare similar stimulations with different warnings. For example,
tell the first group that the stimulation will not hurt, tell
the second group that the stimulation will be intense, but cause
no danger. Lastly, tell the group it will affect them to receive
the stimulation. The experimenter could see if there is any significant
difference in the scores.
Humans are able to adapt to kinesthetic stimulation, but the
power of the mind has a greater effect on the cognitive functioning.
Kinesiology and the anticipation of the cognitive impairment should
continue to be studied to fully understand its role in affecting
cognitive functioning.
Appendix A
1. To the nearest day, how long does it take the moon to revolve
around earth?
A. 1 day
B. 27 days
C. 30 days
D. 365 days
2. During the Progressive Movement, America tried to do all
of the following except what?
A. Ban child labor working hours
B. Pass the nineteenth amendment
C. Regulate monopolies
D. Adopt Christianity into the National morality
3. A suit is sold for $68 while marked at $80. What is
the rate of discount?
A. 15%
B. 12%
C. 20%
D. 24%
4. If 5X+6=10, then X equals?
A. 16/5
B. 5/16
C. 4/5
D. 5/4
5. How many ounces of pure acid must be added to 20 ounces
of a solution that is 5% acid to strengthen it to a solution that
is 24% acid?
A. 2.5
B. 5
C. 6
D. 7.5
6. What is the world's northernmost National capital?
A. Stockholm
B. London
C. Reykjavik
D. Oslo
7. The Supreme Court's reversal of its previous ruling on the
issue of states' right ________ its reputation for ______________.
A. Sustainedinfallibility
B. Compromised.consistency
C. Aggravatedinflexibility
D. Dispelledvacillation
8. Find the missing number that comes next in the sequence.
0,1, -1,0, -2, ___?
A. -2
B. 2
C. 0
D. 1
9. If a certain number is doubled and the result is increased
by 7, the number obtained is 19. What is the original number?
A. 2.5
B. 6
C. 13
D. 16.5
10. NIGHTMARE : DREAM :: ______________:______________
A. Semaphore:signal
B. Dread : expectation
C. Lure: trap
D. Fear : victim
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