Islam

The beginnings of Islamic thought came with the translation of large numbers of philosophical works into Arabic from Greek. The works were primarily those of Aristotle, Plato, and the later Neo-Platonists. Curiously, many of these works were translated by Christian Arabs, at the end of era of Arabic Christianity and the beginning of the era of the hegemony of Islam in Arabic culture. The initial task was to attempt some harmony between the divergent lines of thought represented by Aristotle and the Neo-Platonists. Presented with these two different perspectives, the early Islamic philosophers had to choose one, or the other, or try to harmonize both.

One of the earliest Islamic philosophers was Al-Kindi (who died around the year 870 A.D.). Al-Kindi, like the Islamic philosophers who followed him, sought to harmonize a rational philosophical system with the teachings Islam; in this case, Al-Kindi belonged to a sub-grouping within Islam known as the Mu'tazilites. He posited God in his metaphysical system as absolute and transcendent Being. His epistemology embraced the concept (originally formulated by Aristotle and re-worked by the Neo-Platonists) of both active and passive intellect.

He was followed by Al-Farabi, who based his thought primarily on Plato's Laws and Republic. Al-Farabi, who was a Turk and not an Arab, represents a quite developed system of philosophical terminology; he died around 950 A.D. He carefully distinguished between philosophy and theology, and placed philosophy in the service of theology. He introduced formalized logic into the Islamic world, and began producing arguments for the existence of God, which were influential upon, and similar to, later Thomistic arguments for the same. Like Aquinas (who was familiar with Al-Farabi's works) and his followers, so Al-Farabi and his followers were often mis-understood in their arguments for the existence of God. Neither the Islamic nor the Thomist philosophers were trying to prove the existence of God, even though they wrote “proofs”. Much rather, because both were surrounded by a community of their respective faiths, each group took the existence of God as something which did not need to be proved. Why ,then, write such proofs? The “proof for the existence of God” was a literary form for philosophical discourse; by writing such a proof, a philosopher could exhibit his skill, demonstrate the particilar kind or argumentation which he thought to be most powerful, and en passant make certain assertions about other issues in philosophy. Thus, many Aristotelian arguments for God (Islamic or Thomist) were written as a way to make assertions about physics and metaphysics.

The high points of Islamic thought began with Avicenna (Abu Ali ibn-Sina), who based himself upon Aristotle, but strove to either further refine or change Aristotle's system in order to harmonize it with some of the teachings of Islam. It is an interpretive question whether Avicenna's work is a natural development of Aristotle's system, and thus represents an internal and organic application of the system to itself, or whether Avicenna subjected the Aristotelian system to the external pressures of Islamic orthodoxy and so introduced additions to the system which were not inherent to the organic whole of the sytem itself. In either case, Avicenna replaced Aristotle's two-fold basis (matter and form) for metaphysics with a three-fold basis (matter, form, and being). According to Avicenna, God (qua necessary Being) provides the underlying support for the ongoing process of these three constituents; hence, the existence of the world depends on God. Avicenna was deeply influential in the work of Aquinas; Avicenna's impact is evident in the Thomistic doctrine of God as the underlying support for the existence of the world. Avicenna also indicated that the fundmental metaphysical distinction between necessity and continency was parallel to, and based upon, the distinction between existence and essence. Avicenna's distinction of existence and essence again shows both how he studied Aristotle and how he modified Aristotle's system - cf. Aristotle's distinction between accident and essence. Avicenna has had an influence on the development of modern formal logic, which works with such modalities. Quite notable is his assertion that the mind necessarily apprehends the idea of being, although it is normally acquired through experience; but even without experience, he says, the mind would have this idea: here he is quite ahead of his time, anticipating themes which would occupy modern philosophers from DesCartes to Kant. Avicenna distinguished between two kinds of necessity: contigent beings were not necessary of themselves, but necessary as the result of a determining cause; truly necessary beings were necessary of themselves. Avicenna lived from 980 until 1037.

This most productive period of Islamic thought continued with Averroes (ibn-Rushd), who lived from 1126 until 1198. Averroes represented an attempt to return to a purer form of Aristotelianism, in contrast to the modified Aristotelianism of Avicenna. One of the rare exceptions which Averroes made to his otherwise somewhat strict following of Aristotle was in his concept of a universal intellect. He held that this common mind was both eternal and incorruptable. In this way, Averroes foreshadowed the Vienese psychologist Jung. Both Jung and Averroes suffer from being misunderstood on this point; they retained the individuality of the cognitive act, and thus did not posit a complete unity of consciousness.

Islam arose, in part, as a reaction to the hypocracy of some communities which called themselves either "Christian" or "Jewish" but which were, in fact, neither, because they failed to practice acts of kindness and charity, and had instead degraded into selfishness and immorality. When the prophet Mohammed encountered these communities, he saw the value of the Christian and Jewish teachings, but was sickened by the immorality of these communities which failed to be truly faithful to those ideals. Mohammed adopted many ideas from Christianity and Judaism into the new religion which he created. Abraham, Jesus, Moses, and Jacob play prominent roles in the Koran, and the Koran strongly states that Jesus was born, in a miracle, to the virgin Mary. Islam is very legalistic: Moslems must work and be good in order to earn God's favor, and sins are strictly punished. (This is different than the Judeo-Christian view, in which God loves all people, and in which people don't have to "earn" God's favor.)

The adherents of every religion which has a written guide or code are vitally concerned to know what their holy book says about their secular interests, theological doctrines, political and economic systems, and moral and ethical values established by their particular bias. Muslims are no exception to this ubiquitous search for answers to everyday, as well as eternal, questions.

For many years the oil rig has penetrated the world of Islam; with the advent of independence to so many of the earth's peoples, the Muslim world has been further exposed to the West. Those who have entered spheres of Muslim influence, professional and non-professional alike, are seeking to understand the followers of the Prophet and their way of life. Religious missionaries, Peace Corps personnel, business and diplomatic corps - all are concerned with understanding the nature of Islam, in order to understand better its followers with whom they are pursuing varied activities.

Of prime importance in achieving that comprehension is the scripture of Islam, the Qur'an. It is not a question of merely possessing a copy of this scripture; one seeks to know what it has to say on a variety of subjects, both religious and mundane. Obviously this information must be gleaned from the 114 chapters of which the Qur'an is composed. To peruse the Qur'an, however, from the Fatiha (the first Sura, or chapter) to the last chapter each time the reader is pursuing a given topic, is neither feasible nor practical. The problem constituted by this search for specific information and the method of its acquisition has resulted in this topical index.

Before examining the thesis further, its underlying importance and necessity will be recognized with more clarity if we look first at the few tools previously available to the student of Islam.

Flugel's concordance has proved helpful if the student is already literate in the Arabic language. The concordance lists all the references where any given word in the Arabic text of the Qur'an occurs. Variants of the word may be investigated to see if they bear on the topic the student is researching. Generally, the concordance gives very little indication as to the import of a given verse on a specific topic; each verse listed must be studied on an individual basis. This of course is all that may be expected from a concordance.

On the other hand, the student may select a certain number of English or French words (or words in any language in which he has a reading knowledge) and seek their equivalents in Arabic by means of a lexicon. Presumably, he then has Arabic terms indicative of the topic or topics he is investigating in the Qur'an. Using the concordance, he looks for the words as he found them in the lexicon. Failing to find them, he seeks variants of these words and is no longer sure, if he was so initially, that his study will eventuate in the desired result. The margin for error in such a method, particularly where the student may not be competent in the Arabic language, is too great to be acceptable.

Another tool to which one may have recourse is Wensinck's classification of the traditions. [note 1] If one has a good knowledge of French, he can with diligence peruse an abundance of material bearing on the topic under study. It must be remembered, however, that while this collection of traditions is taken from the orthodox or accepted traditionists of Islam, [note 2] the student is no longer dealing with the primordial source of this religion, which must remain the Qur'an itself.

While the need for tradition became manifest at an early stage of Islam's development, an appeal to the sacred text has always outweighed any other, lesser, considerations. Tradition, just as ijma'a, (the consensus of the Muslim community), has been an essential ingredient in the formation of jurisprudence in the context of the religious state of the Muslim world. Where the student is pursuing a topical study, however, he must know what the Qur'an says. No substitute for this source material will so authoritatively impart the knowledge he seeks.

There are two ways by which the student who is illiterate in Arabic may obtain the object of his quest; that is, to learn what the Qur'an states about a specific topic. He may consult the vast amount of literature in which orientalists have cited the sacred text in support of the points they were making. [note3] He must, in this instance, take into account the fact that his findings are secondhand. Furthermore, he must reconcile himself to the continuing uncertainty of having in his possession all that the Qur'an contains on the subject matter in which he is interested, since he has not actually worked his way through the entire original text.

He may, as a second method, have recourse to translations of the Qur'an. [note 4] Usually, in the last pages of each volume, the translator has appended an index. The unwary student seizes upon this addendum with great satisfaction, until he discovers that each translator is more or less individualistic in his translation of certain Arabic terms [note 5] and that the topic the student is pursuing may be missing altogether. [note 6]

This thesis comprises an index of the religious topics or subjects found in the Qur'an. In the world of Islam, religion touches every aspect of human behavior in a verbal or traditional form, whether or not that behavior is seriously affected by that expression. [note 7] Obviously, one might expect an abundance of topics. In addition to a complete listing of the subjects which are involved in the religion of Islam, this writer desired to produce an index that would be useful to students who may or may not be literate in the Arabic language. Moreover, many topics listed will be of interest only to those possessing some acquaintance with the history and the essential nature of Islam.

Several sources, related to the Qur'an, are available from which topics may be selected. At one point, this researcher consulted a topical Bible [note 8] supposing that its topics would be very similar to those found in the Qur'an. He further consulted the indices of many translations of the Muslim scripture. He has found suggestions in volumes of Muslim theology, jurisprudence and ethics. [note 9] As he examined these alternatives, however, it became increasingly clear that the sole effective method to be employed in gleaning religious topics from the Qur'an consisted in the thorough investigation of each verse [note 10] in each chapter of that book. Therefore, the Arabic Qur'anic text [note 11] constituted the primary source for this research.

Nevertheless, it would have been reprehensible for the researcher to neglect the contribution made by several recognized translations. The works of such men as Arberry, Bell and Blachere stand in the first rank of scholarship. Other translations are esteemed for their evident acceptance in various areas of the Muslim world. The principle followed by this researcher was to indicate not only the basic topics inherent in the Arabic text, but also to abstract from the text of the Qur'an ideas and subjects that are appropriate to the contemporary world yet which were not immediately grasped or perceived by Muslims in the first centuries of Islam. In achieving that goal, these worthwhile translations sometimes proved more valuable than the classical dictionaries. [note 12]

Some precaution had to be observed in the handling of certain translations. Those by Pickthall and Muhammad Ali show a strong bias, and their choice of English vocabulary appears sometimes to be based more upon their desire to achieve agreement with their personal conviction than upon the Arabic text. This researcher gave only limited consideration to the historical development of the Qur'an in his use of textual material in his use of textual material in view of the disagreement among authorities over events and places. [note 13] Only contemporaries of Muhammad whose identities in the Qur'an have been established beyond dispute have been classified. [note 14] In instances where multiple interpretations are equally valid, the researcher has made a subjective choice based upon the support available. [note 15]

The writer exercised care in perusing Bell's translation, the supreme value of which lies in his critical treatment of the Qur'an in relation to its historical setting. To a lesser extent Rodwell's work must come under the same partial endorsement. Arberry was very concerned with the literary quality and rhythm of his work and was capable of combining this objective with a high degree of scholarship. Three translations used are in the French language, [note 16] and of these, Blachere is the most original in his collection of vocabulary. Unfortunately, some of his expressions are sophisticated to such a degree that he would have done well to include explanatory notes. [note17]

The index is composed of two sections. The first of those lists alphabetically the names of persons and places. The second section includes undefined items, physical and metaphysical in nature. By this division, the reader may more rapidly locate the topic desired. Theological subjects have not been organized according to western systems of doctrine, but are more consonant with eastern thought, which may at times appear vague to an occidental perspective. For minor and sometimes unusual topics, sources are indicated by the appropriate abbreviations placed after the reference. [note 18] Wherever feasible and indicated, the topics have been subdivided. [note 19] These internal divisions, although they indicate minimally the content of the text, do not render needless the study of the text itself. It is not within the scope of this index to provide an exhaustive analysis of each topic, but rather to make readily accessible all the passages where any given topic is involved. The student is free to decide on the basis of the information given under each topic and its subdivisions whether he desires to study these passages more thoroughly. The index provides the student with sufficient material to make an intelligent judgment. This indication of the limited scope of a subject constitutes a substantial help supplementary to the information which the Qur'anic concordance provides. Occasionally the concordance confuses distinct entities because the same Arabic word indifferently applies to them. [note 20] The fact that this word may give rise to unrelated topics is irrelevant in a concordance. In this case, the student must examine each reference in the concordance. whereas such distinctions are clearly indicated in the Topical Index. [note 21]

A word needs to be said about a few of the topics in particular. "Path" is indexed wherever it is used figuratively. Where something has been changed from one condition to another, the process is classified under "Change." When anything has undergone change and the resultant condition is not disclosed, the process has been classified under "alteration." [note 22] Where the emphasis is on some quality of the associator rather than on the act of association, the reference is placed under "Associator." The person or thing associated is indexed as "idol." Many implied references to rabb (translated, "Lord") have been placed under "Allah," for rabb is Allah to the Muslim theologian, and the information given completes our understanding of Allah. Very little has been done with the anthropomorphisms in the Qur'an. To index these occurrences in the Qur'an requires an entire volume; such a work has been accomplished by Sabbagh. [note 23] Transliterated Arabic words, unless already accepted in the English language in an established Arabic form (for example, "Allah") are cross-referenced to their English translation.(24)

Two Tables precede the Index: a list of the abbreviations referring to the several translators and a composite list of the topics included in the Index. The symbol (?) following any topic indicates a possible but not confirmed allusion to that topic. The Qur'anic references have been arranged in accepted chronological order of the suras, with the four periods indicated where required: the three Meccan periods as I, II, III, respectively, and the Medinan period as B.

The author is hopeful that this Index will enable scholars, expatriate professionals in the Muslim world, missionaries and government agencies alike to understand more comprehensively the Muslim mind and religion.

ENDNOTES

1. Arent-Jan Wensinck & Others, Concordance et Indice de la Tradition Musulmane Leiden: E.J.Brill, begun in 1933.

2. Al-Bukhari (d.257/870); Muslim (d.261/875); Ibn Maja (d.273/886); Abu Dawud (d.274/888); Al-Tirmidhi (d.279/892); Ibn Hanbal (d.241/855).

3. E.g., Arthur Jeffery, Islam New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1958. Abraham Isaac Katsh, Judaism in Islam New York: Bloch Publishing Co., 1954. Maurice Gaudefroy-Denombynes, Les Institutions Musulmanes Paris: Flammarion, 1946.

4. Cf. "Translations," in the Bibliography, for the most acceptable ones.

5. E.g., Blachere uses a very high level of French and is often original in his choice of words; Muhammad Ali is extremely partisan in his translation of the Arabic; Rodwell is classic.

6. E.g., Kazimirski omits "miracles," "mosques," and "signs."

7. While Muslims mention Allah, for example, and in a variety of contexts, the listener receives the impression that the speaker does so frequently in an altogether unconscious manner. However, the researcher seeks to avoid incorporating his subjective impressions and is obliged to treat each religious expression as he finds it in the printed text. This accounts for the inclusion of such topics as "Alternation," "Group" and "Moon."

8. Orville J. Name Nave's Topical Bible: A Digest of the Holy Scriptures 4th ed. New York: Press of Eaton and Mains, 1900.

9. E.g., Edwin Elliott Calverley Worship In Islam rev. ed. London: Luzac & Company Ltd., 1957.

10. Verses in the Qur'an are considered to be "signs" as the word ayat may be translated. It is logical to expect that each sign would have religious substance.

11. The Cairo edition of the Qur'anic text is the textus receptus of Islam since the rule of Uthman (644-656 A.D.).

12. Such as Edward William Lane An Arabic-English Lexicon 8 vols. London: Williams and Norgate, 1863.

13. This is exemplified by the inclusion of such topics as "Badr" and "Hudaybiya," where the external historical evidence was very clear.

14. Thus, "Abu Bakr," "Abu jahl" and "Abu Lahab" have been included.

15. Thus the author feels that "Greek" is the more probable meaning of the Arabic rum and shows the support for this by Arberry, Kazimirski, Montet, Palmer and Rodwell.

16. Those of Blachere, Kazimirski and Montet.

17. E.g., "viatique" (2:193); "troc" (2:276); "suppots" (3:169); "clinquant" (11:18). It is true that these words are in the dictionary; they are, however, infrequently used.

18. E.g., under "Search," the fact that house search is indicated in the reference 17.5, is supported by Bell, Palmer and Rodwell.

19. E.g., the topic, "Security," is subdivided into "general," "figurative," "physical." Both the figurative and physical subdivisions are further divided. The topic is crossed to "Protection."

20. E.g., nafs may mean "breath," "freedom" or "author's style."

21. E.g., the Arabic qatala may be referring to sacrifice, murder or suicide. This is so, even though Arabic contains words to indicate each of these meanings more precisely. The point is, however, that the concordance does not distinguish between these uses of the Arabic word, while the Topical Index does.

22. The distinction is not always easy to make. A change in the creation, according to the author's modus operandi, came under "Alteration." A change in the heavens and the earth and in circumstances, came under "Change."

23. Sabbagh, La Metaphore dans le Coran Paris: Adrien-Maisonneuve, 1943.

24. E.g., "Al-Ayka" is cross-referenced to "Madyan"; "Dhu al-Nun" to "Jonah."

ABBREVIATIONS REFERRING TO TRANSLATORS
(NOT used in this index)

A ARBERRY
M MONTET
B BELL
MA MUHAMMAD ALI
BL BLACHERE
PA PALMER
K KAZIMIRSKI
P PICKTHALL
R RODWELL

BIBLIOGRAPHY: GENERAL

Bell, Richard. Introduction to the Qur'an Edinburgh: University Press, 1958.

Flugel, (G.). Corani textus arabicus Leipsig: Ernesti Bradtu, 1858.

Gaudefroy-Denombynes, Maurice. Les Institutions Musulmanes Paris: Flammarion, 1946.

Hirschfeld, Hartwig. New Researches into the Composition and Exegesis of the Coran London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1902.

Jeffrey, Arthur Islam New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1958.

Katsh, Abraham Isaac Judaism in Islam New York: Block Publishing Co., 1954.

Margoliouth, D. S. Chrestomathia Baidawiana: a translation of the commentary of al-Baidawi on Surah III London: Luzac and Company, 1894.

Sabbagh, T. La Metaphore dans le Coran Paris: Adrian-Maisonneuve, 1943.

Sweetman, J. Windrow. Islam and Christian Theology 3 vols. London: Lutterworth Press, 1947.

LEXICAL AIDS

Dozy, R. Supplement aux Dictionaries Arabes Leyden: 1881.

Hava, J. G. An Arabic-English Dictionary Beirut: Catholic Press, 1951.

Lane, Edward William An Arabic-English Lexicon London: Williams and Norgate, 1863, 8 vols.

Wright, W. A Grammar of the Arabic Language: a translation of Caspari 3rd ed. Cambridge: University Press, 1955, 2 vols.

TRANSLATIONS

Ali, Maulvi Muhammad. The Holy Qur-an Lahore: Ahmadiyya Anjuman-iishaat-i-Islam, 1935.

Arberry, Arthur J. The Koran Interpreted London: George Allen & Unwin, 1955, 2 vols.

Bell, Richard. The Qur'an Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1937, 2 vols.

Blachere, Regis. Le Coran Paris: Ed. G.-P. Maisonneuve, 1957.

Kazimirski, M. Le Koran Paris: Fasquelle Editeurs, n.d.

Montet, Edouard. Le Coran Paris: Payot, 1954.

Palmer, E.H. The Koran London: Oxford University Press, n.d.

Pickthall, Mohammed Marmaduke. The Meaning of the Glorious Koran New York: The New American Library of World Literature, 1956.

Rodwell, J. M. The Koran London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1957.

The Koran is divided into over one hundred Suras, each of which is a semi-independent text. Here some sample texts:

Sura 3:55 Behold! Allah said: "I will take you and raise you to myself and clear you of those who blaspheme; I will make those who follow you the superior to those who reject faith to the day of resurrection..."

The Muslim Hadith wrote:

Satan goads every son of Adam at his birth, so that he cries out in fear, but for the son of Mary; when he came to goad him, he could not, he goaded the cover.

In the spectrum of moral reasoning on war, holy war has long been seen as occupying a position on the extreme fringes of bellicosity. In Western Christian history, it finds its ultimate expression in the Crusades. The Crusades are an aberration, a violent distortion of Christ's teachings. The archetypal holy war is the Islamic jihad. It has not been and cannot be renounced in Islamic thinking.

The general Christian approach to war during the first three centuries was pacifism, because it was impossible to extract any coherent theory of warfare from the sacred books of Christianity. Western culture decisively rejected any role for holy war in the practice of statecraft.

The term jihad is used of a struggle - through violent means if necessary - to realize God's will or implement God's laws as understood by Islam. The idea of “holy” war is an important aspect of Islamic doctrine and history. The idea of holy war remains potent in Islam, because of the centrality of politics to the Islamic moral order; religious justifications will always figure in the resort of Muslims to violence.

Der Roman »Die satanischen Verse« von Salman Rushdi hat internationale Konflikte ausgelöst, Menschenleben gekostet und die Frage von Religionsfreiheit und künstlerischer Freiheit zugespitzt. Auf welche satanischen Verse Rushdi angespielt hat und warum dies eine so grosse Emporung bei vielen Muslimen ausgelösen konnte, soll uns auf Umwegen zu den Nabataeern führen. Es bestehen nämlich Bezüge des Problems der satanischen Verse zu jenen Formen arabischer Religion, die auch die Nabataeer prägte. Als Mohammed die Mekkaner fuer den Islam gewinnen wollte, hatte er dem Scheich der Quraishiten Amru Ibn Hashim angeboten, die drei Schutzgöttinnen Mekkas als mächtige »Fürbitterinnen« ins »Haus des Islam« zu übernehmen. In Sure 53,19-20 heißt es: »Und was meint ihr denn mit al-Lat und al-'uzza und weiter mit Manat, der dritten.« Mohammed soll, wie at-Tabari in seinen Annalen I, S. 1192-1196 und in seinem Korankommentar zu 22,52 überliefert, ebenso Ibn Sa'd in seinen Tabaqat I, Teil I, S. 137f, ursprünglich in Sure 53, genannt »der Stern«, hinter Vers 20 fortgefahren sein: »Das sind die erhabenen Kraniche. Auf ihre Fürbitte darf man hoffen.« [Variante 1: »Ihre Fürbitte ist angenehm.« Variante 2: »Auf ihre Fürbitte darf man hoffen. Ihresgleichen wird nicht vergessen.«]

Die über diese Kompromissbereitschaft erfreuten Mekkaner unterwarfen sich nun dem Glauben an den einen Gott, an Allah, und wollten fortan ihre Göttinnen nur noch als »Töchter Allahs« verehren. Nach Sure 17,73 erschien jedoch der Engel Gabriel dem Mohammed mit der Botschaft: »Und sie hätten dich beinahe in Versuchung gebracht, von dem, was wir dir als Offenbarung eingegeben haben, abzuweichen, damit du gegen uns etwas anderes als den Koran aushecken wuerdest. Dann hätten sie dich zum Freund genommen! Wenn wir dich nicht gefestigt hätten, hättest du bei ihnen fast ein wenig Anlehnung gesucht.« Daraufhin habe Mohammed die Kranich-Verse als Einflüsterungen des Satans bezeichnet und in mehreren Suren energisch widerrufen: »Das sind blosse Namen, die ihr und eure Väter aufgebracht habt, und wozu Gott keine Vollmacht herabgesandt hat. Sie gehen nur Vermutungen nach und dem, wonach der Sinn steht, wo doch die Rechtleitung von ihrem Herrn zu ihnen gekommen ist.« (53, 23) Die angeblich vom Teufel eingeflüsterten sog. satanischen Verse sind in keiner Koran-Ausgabe vorhanden; ihre Existenz wird von vielen islamischen Theologen bestritten. Die drei Goettinnen Al-Lat, al-'Uzza und Manat begegnen uns auch bei den Nabataeern und wir müssen uns fragen, welche Rolle sie im Pantheon der Nabataeer hatten. Vgl. Erdmute Heller; Hassouna Mosbahi, Hinter den Schleiern des Islam. Erotik und Sexualität in der arabischen Kultur, München 1997, 20-21; R. Paret, Der Koran. Kommentar und Konkordanz, 461. Tabari, Korankommentar und Annalen.

Terror im Namen des Glaubens - In der Islamischen Republik Pakistan bekämpfen sich Sunniten und Schiiten immer brutaler Warum bekämpfen sich ausgerechnet in Pakistan, das seine Entstehung dem Islam verdankt, sunnitische und schiitische Extremisten bis in die Moscheen hinein? Vierhundert Muslime, darunter Frauen und Kinder, verloren bei solchen Auseinandersetzungen im vergangenen Jahr ihr Leben. Zweiundzwanzig waren es vor kurzem an einem einzigen Tag in Lahore. Es lief nach dem bekannten Schema ab, diesmal auf einem Friedhof: Schiiten gedachten eines vor Jahren gestorbenen Maulanas. Zwei Männer näherten sich auf einem Motorrad, schossen plötzlich mit Kalaschnikows blindlings in die betende Menge und rasten wieder davon. Achtzig weitere Gläubige wurden verletzt. Die Regierung ist inzwischen kleinlaut geworden in ihrem Kampf gegen islamische Fanatiker. Solange in den Ämtern und Parlamenten Leute sitzen, die religiöse Aggression als Allah wohgefällig definieren, dürfte es immer wieder zu Zusammenstößen kommen.

Unter der Herrschaft des Generals Ziaul-Haq (1977 bis 1988) hatten sich die latenten Spannungen zwischen Schiiten und Sunniten merklich verschärft. Seine »Islamisierungspolitik« war streng sunnitisch geprägt. Dagegen begehrten schließlich Angehörige der schiitischen Minderheit öffentlich auf. Tausende formierten sich 1983 zu einem Sternmarsch auf die Hauptstadt Islamabad, wo sie die Regierungsgebäude »belagerten« und die Arbeit der Behörden zwei Tage lang zum Stillstand brachten. Ihr Anliegen: Der Staat möge die schiitischen Andachts- und Ausbildungsstätten besser gegen sunnitische Attacken schützen und die beschädigten Gebäude renovieren. Sie verlangten ferner, daß neben der Scharia, dem sunnitischen Rechts- und Pflichtensystem, auch ihre Fiqh-i-Jafria verfassungsmäßig anerkannt werde. Das ist bis heute nicht hinreichend geschehen.

Schon damals waren die Schiiten in eine Zwickmühle geraten. Die politische Opposition gegen den Militärmachthaber, die Pakistanische Nationale Allianz (PNA), war ebenfalls strickt sunnitisch...

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