Defining the Heroic in American Literature

In defining the heroic in American literature, it is necessary to establish a distinction between the heroic in literature as opposed to the heroic in real life. Within the confines of literature, attention is sometimes focused on an action or reaction that is set apart as heroic where the same action or reaction in daily life would be anticipated as a normal, expected response or in some cases actually frowned upon. With that distinction, the journey to discovering the heroic in American literature involves a steady movement away from the ancient beginning ideals of heroism to concepts in some ways simpler and in other ways more complex than those previously conceived. Within American literature two distinct forms of heroism can be identified--heroism in action as found in Moby Dick, Little Women, The Red Badge of Courage, and Death Comes for the Archbishop and heroism in thought or self-understanding as found in Invisible Man, Catch-22, and The Color Purple. In All the King's Men, there is a distinct shift between these two heroic forms which serves to further define heroism by showing heroic potential while failing to present an heroic character. Often, characteristics overlap between these two heroic types, but there also remains a definite distinction that can not be dismissed in a single all-encompassing definition.

The ancient heroic ideal set forth by the Greeks gives rise to the literary action hero. The Greeks outlined the tragic hero as an high-born individual of elevated status possessed of a fatal flaw which resulted in the individual's downfall. American writers quickly discarded the notion of high-born status thus opening the door for anyone regardless of their birth station to achieve heroic status. This evolving heroic ideal was further enhanced by the transformation of the Greek tragic flaw to the character shortcomings common to all men. In an examination of numerous literary works, however, certain traits still surface furnishing a continuous framework in defining the heroic figure. This evolutionary process of definition is readily visible when examining the aforementioned works in chronological order, thus displaying the subtle shifts in emphasis that ultimately give rise to the definition of the heroic within the realm of the whole.

The action hero was the first form of the heroic displayed in American literature. Beginning with Herman Melville's Moby-Dick written in 1851, we see close ties to the traditional Greek tragic hero while at the same time the hero is drastically altered to present a distinctly American facade. Melville's unlikely hero in this work is Captain Ahab. As Captain of the Pequod, he assumes the function of king or dictator which gives him the elevated status to fit the traditional view of the hero (Millhauser 76). Melville established this evolution from ancient Greek ideals when he wrote:
Men may seem detestable...;men may have mean and meagre faces; but, man, in the ideal, is so noble and so sparkling, such a grand and glowing creature, that over any ignominious blemish in him all his fellows should run to throw their costliest robes...If, then, to meanest mariners, and renegades and castaways, I shall hereafter ascribe high qualities, though dark; weave round them tragic graces;...then against all mortal critics bear me out in it, thou just Spirit of Equality....Thou who, in all Thy mighty, earthly marchings, ever cullest Thy selectest champions from the kingly commons; bear me out in it, O God! (444-445)
Melville takes the fatal flaw from the Greeks and makes it evident in Ahab's pride (Millhauser 76). Deluded by the prophecies of Fedallah, Ahab comes to view himself as immortal, able to overcome anything. Within dramatic and literary tradition, the heroic idea of being above everything else is a recurring theme. Ahab's "flaw, akin to madness...involves equally Ahab's imposing spiritual stature and his inexorable fate" (Millhauser 76). His blinding pride prevents him from seeing any other path of action or alternative meanings for events that occur other than the one he chooses to fit with his monomaniacal pursuit of Moby Dick.

In facing Moby Dick, Ahab shows many of the qualities that make him a leader. He is able to command and control. He captures the respect of his crew even though at times it appears to be grudgingly given. As Chapter XLI opens, Ishmael acknowledges that "Ahab's quenchless feud seemed mine" (Melville 482). From references within the text, there is no reason to believe that possibly Ahab was not always as he appears within the confines of Melville's novel. One can easily reason that he was a good and successful whaling captain leading to his continuing in command even after the debilitating injury received from Moby Dick. In his interactions with Pip and Starbuck, the reader is allowed very brief glimpses of a man who once had feelings that have been submerged in the driving force which has become all encompassing in his life--the pursuit of Moby Dick. Although ultimately Ahab's madness in pursuing Moby Dick leads to the death and destruction of the Pequod and all on board, with the exception of Ishmael, their destruction is never Ahab's intent. He seems to be totally unaware of the interaction of their fates and his--except for Starbuck. In ordering Starbuck to stay on board the Pequod rather than boarding one of the whaling boats as he normally would, Ahab's intent is to spare Starbuck's life. Ahab, believing in the prophecy of Fedallah, has deluded himself into believing something different from what actually occurs to the very end. Finally, recognizing that he has been deceived in his belief, he [Ahab] is grudgingly resigned to his fate.

Melville wrote "there is no quality in this world that is not what it is merely by contrast. Nothing exists in itself" (408). If applied to the concept of the hero, this fits in with Melville's apparent destruction of his own heroic model in Ahab wherein Ahab is reduced to his fallen end. "Long exile from Christendom and civilization inevitably restores a man to that condition in which God placed him, i.e. what is called savagery" (Melville 538). With these words, Melville necessitates viewing the double-sidedness of man wherein the same individual can appear good or evil although the individual remains the same with only his circumstance or situation changed. Failure to see more in Ahab than the negative qualities so obvious in Moby Dick constitutes failure on the part of the reader to apply Melville's method of examining an object or person from all angles so as to find the balance of good and bad qualities. Perception is a key to Melville's work in the continuous efforts to view the same object or event form all sides. Because we pick up the story near the end (from Ahab's perspective), it is difficult to ascertain his full motivations. Moby Dick is Ahab's nemesis and Melville is never clear in spelling out how the white whale is to be interpreted. Some of the confusion with regard to Ahab as well as Moby Dick arises from the manner in which Melville is constantly revealing the multi-faceted nature of men and objects.

With this emphasis upon perception, Melville also introduced the second heroic type in Ishmael. Ishmael, as narrator of the novel, is constantly attempting to perceive truth and expand his knowledge of life through his and other's experiences. Ishmael has an open mind. This demonstration of the changes that can occur through man's reasoning and self-perception make Ishmael a prototype for the shifting in heroic ideal from the hero of action to the hero of thought that unfolds over the next century.

In 1868, Louis Mae Alcott's Little Women further defined the heroic by shifting the role of leadership to one of an even more commonplace figure than a ship's captain. Alcott retains the struggle with character flaw, but again the shift is made from one of inevitable, fated proportions to one commonly recognizable by virtually every reader. With Jo March, Alcott presents a modern young woman in a day when women were very much relegated to a specific role within the home. From the opening pages of the novel, Jo exhibits a unique strength of character that refuses to be molded to the traditional form. Jo's determination to be different creates an individual who is heroic in her strength and courage to stand out in society and her ability to share that quality with others. From the moment we meet Jo, she is revealed as one who cares little for what other people think, one determined to be her own person. Within the course of the novel, however, she learns that although one should not allow what others think to determine what one becomes, consideration for others can never be carelessly tossed aside. The ability to take each situation, good or bad, and to learn from it sets Jo on her heroic journey.

Jo's journey to the heroic reaches it culmination in her finding a non-fiction hero of her own in Professor Bhaer. "[W]hile endowing her imaginary heroes with every perfection under the sun, Jo was discovering a live hero, who interested her in spite of many human imperfections" (Alcott 321). At this point is revealed Ms. Alcott's version of the hero in thought. He is neither perfect by worldly standards, nor a knight in shining armor, nor a king making the supreme sacrifice for his people, but the heroic is discovered in the simplicity of his character which revealed that "genuine good will toward one's fellow men could beautify and dignify" (Alcott 322). By forcing Jo to deal with her driving literary ambition, he helps her see "that character is a better possession than money, rank, intellect, or beauty..." (Alcott 324).

Jo's journey to the heroic in action ultimately leads her to a role where her life is spent in giving herself to others, shaping them to be themselves while still maintaining a proper place in the grand scheme of things. In characterizing Jo, Ms. Alcott's hero is fully developed as one with the strength of character that allows one to be uniquely different while seeking always to help others in the journey of life by placing them ahead of oneself. Jo's heroic act that will not be forgotten after she's dead, only a dream as a young lady, is realized through the lives she touches and the future generations she ultimately affects. This characteristic of willing self-sacrifice can be retroactively taken back to Ahab in the previous work in a more narrow understanding.

With Stephen Crane's The Red Badge of Courage, the concept of the heroic figure begins to shift farther away from the clearly defined characteristics of ancient tradition. Henry Fleming presents a way leadership characteristics can be more broadly interpreted. A private in the army, he certainly does not hold a position of respect or leadership; however, his actions in battle ultimately become a rallying point for those around him making him a leader at that given moment. Nevertheless, the idea of a single individual rising up to heroically conquer in any situation lost favor with the changing views of the nineteenth century leading Crane to address as a theme "the quandary of heroism in an unheroic age" by creating in Henry Fleming a figure both heroic and non-heroic all in one (Beaver 67).

Written in 1895, this novel deepened the understanding of the character flaw seen earlier by showing how the positive and negative manifestations associated with heroism or its lack are interconnected. Through Henry's progression in thoughts, Crane explores this changing view of the hero. As the book opens, "the youth [Henry] had believed that he must be a hero" (Crane 50), as he set out as a newly enlisted man. Awaiting the call of his first battle, Henry reflected that "[s]ometimes he inclined to believing them all heroes" (Crane 57) based simply on their role as soldiers. However, when confronted with the reality of battle, Henry soon noticed that "[t]here was a singular absence of heroic poses" (Crane 86). Trying to cope with his own inadequacy, Henry finds himself always lacking in comparison with those around him. As they marched along he thought that heroes "could find excuses...They could retire with perfect self-respect and make excuses to the stars" (Crane 123). Marching among those heroes wounded in battle, "they rendered it almost impossible for him to see himself in a heroic light" (Crane 125). Henry began to despair "that he should ever become a hero" (Crane 126). However, through a new confrontation in battle, Henry found himself functioning in the traditional heroic role. "[H]e was now what he called a hero. And he had not been aware of the process" (Crane 166). Through all this Henry came to realize 'that he was very insignificant" (Crane 171) by recognizing that the same person who fled was the same one who stood to fight.

By addressing the specific aspect of heroism in battle, Crane presents the victim as hero (Beaver 72) or perhaps, conversely, the hero as victim. When Henry flees the battle he does not do so thinking himself a coward, but rather, a wise person who recognizes overwhelming odds. Later after his head is wounded and bandaged, these become his "red badge" reminding him of his inadequacy when the moment of battle came, his lack of courage, his cowardice. He feels shamed. However, after being reunited with his unit, he finds himself again in battle where to fight against the fear of cowardice and shame of cowardice gives birth to the bravery of heroism. "In the end he [Henry] sees that he is neither a hero nor a villain, that he must assume the burdens of a mixed, embattled, impermanent, modest, yet prevailing humanity. He has discovered courage" (Credy 142).

In Crane's later short story, "The Veteran," the true heroism of Henry Fleming is revealed when he reaches a point where he has enough courage to acknowledge his lack of perfection (or courage) to those who look up to him as an heroic figure. He admits his original cowardice with the admonition that one failing does not signify eternal failure. By showing the potential of every man to rise above his shortcomings, Crane establishes the heroic quality of Henry Fleming. In establishing the close relationship between the negative and positive aspects of a single characteristic--in this case confronting battle with either courage or cowardice--Crane opens the door for an infinite understanding of what makes a hero by demonstrating that perfection is not a necessary characteristic. Thus, Crane combines both the heroic in action and the heroic in thought in a single character in Henry Fleming through his actions in battle and his thoughtful, introspective self-realization.

In Willa Cather's work of 1927, Death Comes for the Archbishop, the heroic ideal whose definition began with Moby-Dick is again viewed with the unfolding qualities evidencing the hero outlined in the earlier novels being revealed in Father LaTour. Father Vaillant also displays many of these characteristics. Both priests are fully consecrated, they just live it out differently. They have committed themselves to self-sacrifice for the sake of those whom they seek to serve and exhibit strong inner courage in the setting aside of self. However, Father Vaillant's very presence has hinged upon the influence of Father LaTour in his life, thus ultimately pointing back to Father LaTour as the heroic figure in the novel.

"The new Vicar must be a young man, of strong constitution, full of zeal, and above all, intelligent. He will have to deal with savagery and ignorance, with dissolute priests and political intrigue. He must be a man to whom order is necessary--as dear as life" (Cather 8). With this opening description, Cather introduces the caliber of man to be found in Father LaTour. When he discovers the juniper tree in the shape of a cross, his immediate response is one of grateful worship. He is described as "...a priest in a thousand....His bowed head was not that of an ordinary man..." (Cather 18). Father LaTour's role as a leader is found partly in his position in the church, but it is validated by the fact he deserves the position--he is qualified to lead the efforts of Christianizing this new diocese. His qualifications include a love of God and His church, a strong intellectual background which enables him to deal with the church hierarchy, the social training to fit comfortably with the social elite he encounters, but also a compassionate nature which equips him to deal with the peasants who populate his diocese. Father LaTour's leadership is also portrayed through the way people turn to him for guidance. Without his leading, Father Vaillant never would have made it to the mission field as is revealed through Father Vaillant's vacillation as a youth first contemplating leaving home for missionary service.

Although Cather does not tell a great deal about Father LaTour's service as an active entity, his action is revealed through the reaction of the different people to him. He has earned the respect of his servants, the well-to-do in his community, the poor Mexicans and Indians in his community, and his peers. Father LaTour is defined by how he reacts to others and how they react to him. He earns their respect and that is a response that is not given lightly. "The Bishop kept his word..." (Cather 132). In these few words much of the respect Father LaTour received from all people everywhere is explained. When Jacinto takes Father LaTour to the secret cave, he demonstrates complete trust in the priest's character. Had Father LaTour not been actively involved among the people, Jacinto would not have had any basis for truly assessing his character, much less trusting him in this way.
The truth was, Jacinto like the Bishop's way of meeting people thought he had the right tone with Padre Gallegos, the right tone with Padre Jesus, and that he had good manners with the Indians. In his experience, white people, when they addressed Indians, always put on a false face. There were many kinds of false faces; Father Vaillant's for example, was kindly but too vehement. The Bishop put on none at all. He stood straight and turned to the Governor of Laguna, and his face underwent no change. Jacinto thought this remarkable. (Cather 93-94)

Father LaTour exhibits a love of nature, God's handiwork, and of man's attempts to represent it. His one ambition is to leave something of lasting consequence to the land and the people--his cathedral. But in his plans, he seeks to find a means for creating a building that will grow out of its surroundings and, thus, capture the totality of Father LaTour's ministry. He sees its significance as an artistic expression of nature and as a religious object. In recognizing the comfort he finds in his own rituals and icons, he becomes tolerant of the natives in their practices even when they do not necessarily meld with the Christian ideal. Through his openness, Father LaTour allows for the people to approach God on their terms rather than on his.

It is easy to overlook the actions and characteristics Father LaTour is so consistent in, because he does them in a quiet unassuming manner which enables him to display an almost Christ-like persona. Anyone who has ever attempted to attain a Christ-like nature easily recognizes the heroic strength of character and self-denial that is essential to even beginning this journey to being conformed to the image of Jesus Christ. Whether the source of his courage comes from himself or his faith, Father LaTour is courageous. This is more apparent when held against his own periodic moments of self-doubt and failure (Cather 210-211). Father LaTour sacrifices much to achieve what he does. However, because of his quiet, introverted nature it can easily be overlooked. He acknowledges his loneliness and selfish desire to have Father Vaillant remain always with him as a companion (Cather 251). But, in putting others first, Father LaTour sacrifices his own needs for the good of others--specifically, the many lives that Father Vaillant can and does touch. Ultimately, in Father LaTour, Willa Cather creates a unique character of high position and leadership with flaws, courage, and self-sacrifice. At the same time, Father LaTour also exhibits qualities important to the heroic in thought in his honest self-perception.

Through these works the evolving action hero in American literature emerges as an individual with leadership qualities evidenced regardless of birth, rank, position, or social status. Further, a hero in this category is plagued with faults or internal struggles, but displays a consistency in overcoming these detrimental qualities to address the task at hand. Finally, these heroes display a concern for others that exhibits itself in self-sacrifice. Interestingly, they frequently exhibit qualities of introspection and the depth of thought that become the major presentation of the heroic in American literature in the twentieth century, while the action hero is relegated to a lesser role, if not completely eliminated.

With Robert Penn Warren's All The King's Men, the action antihero is presented in the development of Willie Stark. Written in 1946, Willie demonstrates all the potentials of an action hero but fails to achieve that status. A charismatic leader with no outstanding physical characteristics known simply as "the Boss" (Warren 4), Willie initially displays heroic potential as he sets out to pursue the good of the people. "He became symbolically the spokesman for the tongue-tied population of honest men" (Warren 63). Unfortunately, Willie proves the truism that power corrupts as he allows the system to warp his values wherein he reaches a point of believing that "[i]t all depends on what you do with the dirt" (Warren 45) indicating his acceptance of the corrupt political system. Willie believes he can use the system to accomplish good and thus fulfill his heroic potential. However, despite his desire to do good, his emersion in the political mainstream ultimately corrupts Willie and taints everything he has accomplished. Recognizing this, Willie seeks to "make some good out of some bad. The hospital. The Willie Stark Hospital" (Warren 260). But even here, he cannot escape the bad which has lowered him from the heroic ideal. The appearance of sacrifice is sometimes evident, but Willie always stands to gain personally whether in finances, power, or recognition, thus, his self-wants and needs always supersede those of others. As death nears, Willie recognizes his heroic failings when he acknowledges, "'It might have been all different....You got to believe that'" (Warren 400). The desire to change his life's direction is present, but with his death no action can be taken.

In the same novel, Jack Burden presents the antithesis of the evolving heroic of thought or ideas. Jack's struggle with the confrontation of understanding and with the acceptance of the roles of knowledge and truth include such non-heroic moments as the Great Sleep and the Great Twitch. Rather than heroically moving forward, Jack seeks to stagnate or flee. He states that "[t]he end of man is knowledge, but there is one thing he can't know. He can't know whether knowledge will save him or kill him....for the end of man is to know" (Warren 9). His attitude to life is reflected in his statement, "If I didn't look around it would not be true....I owed my success to that principle....what you don't know don't hurt you, for it ain't real" (Warren 30). His escapist outlook is further revealed when he reflects, "I could remember but I didn't want to remember. If the human race didn't remember anything it would be perfectly happy" (Warren 40). Clearly Jack lacks ambition (Warren 54). At one point Jack tries "to discover the truth and not the facts" (Warren 157), but ultimately Jack only functions with the past or the future, never the present except for the time with Anne when she was 17. This inability to accept the present tense of time and its place in the whole of time keep Jack from achieving heroic status. Still, the possibility of attaining heroic status is clearly established and by the end of the novel, he makes a turn in outlook that could lead to heroic development when he states of Willie, "what happened to his greatness is not the question....But he had it. I must believe that" (Warren 427). This is Jack's beginning attempt to heroically link time, knowledge, facts, and truth; however, within the confines of the novel, he does not actually achieve this status.

In All the King's Men, Robert Penn Warren explores disillusionment with the heroic by introducing the oxymoron of a bought hero (145). His concept is one "of man as a fallen, debased, limited, and therefore heroic, creature..." (Ruoff 90). Thus, he presents an evil world without heroes showing the depth of American literary disillusionment with the corrupted heroic ideal that had grown out of overuse and misuse of the terms "hero," "heroic," and "heroism."

Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man, written in 1947, continues the idea of the anti-action hero while developing the depth of thought and self-perception necessary to transcend into the heroic of thought. The unnamed, "invisible" narrator of this work undergoes a monumental journey in realization as to who he is which also encompasses an understanding of who others are as well. Initially believing in conformity though not acknowledging it for what it is, his growth in awareness involves a continuous effort to deal with subversive thought and action. Introduced to the conflicting elements of conformity and subversion by his grandfather, Ellison's narrator is at first blinded by idealism. He observes:
It took me a long time and much painful boomeranging of my expectations to achieve a realization everyone else appears to have been born with: That I am nobody but myself. But first I had to discover that I am an invisible man. (Ellison 15)
Full of potential to serve as a leader among his people, the narrator's flaw lies in the same perceptual blindness which creates his invisibility. His identity becomes submerged through his efforts to be like others and fulfill their expectations. Through much of the novel, our "invisible" narrator believes his self-worth comes from the opinions of others from whom he constantly seeks approval. Not until late in the work does he begin to discover that self-worth is determined by each individual and others cannot take that away.

Due to his overwhelming desire to be an action hero, Ellison's narrator allows himself to be swept along by events and manipulated by people of power reflecting back to Warren's earlier emphasis on the abuses of power and leadership. Breaking free of those who try to control him, he eventually comes to a number of important revelations. He realizes,
I was my experiences and my experiences were me, and no blind men, no matter how powerful they became, even if they conquered the world, could take that, or change one single itch, taunt, laugh, cry, scar, ache, rage, or pain of it. (Ellison 508)
"Life is to be lived, not controlled....Our fate is to become one, and yet many" (Ellison 580). With this thought, the narrator begins to unfold his universal truths beginning with recognizing the value of diversity over conformity. "[T]oo much of your life will be lost, its meaning lost, unless you approach it as much through love as through hate. So I approach it through division. So I denounce and I defend and I hate and I love" (Ellison 580). Rather than becoming an action hero, Ellison's narrator ultimately finds his heroic status in self-realization as he discovers who he truly is and his place in the large scale scheme of things shedding insights universally applicable. With the book's closing sentence the ideas pursued throughout the novel are pointed to all mankind with the question, "Who knows but hat, on the lower frequencies, I speak for you?" (Ellison 581).

Through Ellison's exploration of the subversive in society and the contrasts in ideas such as love/hate, he re-establishes the role of perspective begun with Melville and continued by Crane.
The narrator has discovered what many American heroes have discovered, that he is not free to reorganize and order the world, but he can at least exercise the freedom to arrange and name his perceptions of the world. (Tanner 2)
Ellison presents the interesting slant that heroism is in the perceptions of the beholder and, therefore, is a fleeting basically undefinable concept. All attempts at such definition ultimately only present the perceptions of the interpreter doing the defining.

In 1955's Catch-22, Joseph Heller expounds a similar problem as the one earlier pursued by Stephen Crane in The Red Badge of Courage. However, Heller's principle emphasis is on the internal struggle with conflicting values rather than the development of action, although Yossarian does exhibit the characteristics of the action hero while at the same time trying to shun them. "[Y]ou're still a pretty big hero for going around twice over the bridge at Ferrara. I guess you're just about the biggest hero we've got now in the group...." (Heller 401). With the uncertainty of these words, Heller establishes Yossarian as an action hero--maybe, on a guess. In the war effort, Yossarian successfully completes numerous bombing missions, far exceeding the number set by the government due to the "orders" of his squadron's commanding officer. When called a hero, he protests, "But I was trying to do my duty. I was obeying orders. I was always taught that I had to obey orders" (Heller 401). These words summarize the quandary Yossarian explores throughout the novel.

Heller establishes Yossarian's world as one turned upside down by war. After exploring this chaotic condition and the havoc it creates on people's values, Yossarian finally arrives at his decision to withdraw from the conflict. The world of war is described by Heller as one where
[m]en went mad and were rewarded with medals. All over the world, boys on every side of the bomb line were laying down their lives for what they had been told was their county, and no one seemed to mind, least of all the boys who were laying down their young lives. (Heller 10)
Through Yossarian's eyes, Heller proceeds to explode the blindly accepted notions of heroism in war. Yossarian's "only mission each time he went up was to come down alive" (Heller 24).
"...you must never let them change your values. Ideals are good, but people are sometimes not so good. You must try to look up at the big picture.'....'Don't talk to me about fighting to save my country. Now I'm going to fight a little to save myself. The country's not in danger any more, but I am" (Heller 447).
Identifying his adversary after careful reasoning, Yossarian names the enemy as "'anybody who's going to get you killed, no matter which side he's on...'" (Heller 120). "Yossarian mistakenly blames others for his predicament. 'What Yossarian learns in the course of the book is that he, and no one else, is in control of his fate--he is the center of his universe, and thus able to control it'" (Sniderman 1). By refusing to flow with the mainstream, he causes all characters (some with more insight than others) to be confronted with possible meanings and rationales behind his aberrant behavior.
"You have deep-seated survival anxieties. Any you don't like bigots, bullies, snobs or hypocrites. Subconsciously there are many people you hate."
"Consciously, sir, consciously," Yossarian corrected in an effort to help. "I hate them consciously."
"You're antagonistic to the idea of being robbed, exploited, degraded, humiliated or deceived. Misery depresses you. Ignorance depresses you. Persecution depresses you. Violence depresses you. Slums depress you. Greed depresses you. Crime depresses you. Corruption depresses you. You know, it wouldn't surprise me if you're a manic-depressive!" (Heller 304)
With this interview, Yossarian's "faults" as viewed by his superiors are outlined for the reader. The flaw identifiable by the reader, though, is one of irresponsibility for his own actions. Rather than dealing with the perceived problem, Yossarian makes numerous escape efforts through hospital stays, food poisonings, and altering orders. The lack of understanding displayed by those Yossarian encounters heightens Heller's probing of war and heroism and the endless, conflicting perspectives of its observers and participants. Major Major's dilemma in handling Yossarian is reflected in his thought, "What could you do with a man who looked you squarely in the eye and said he would rather die than be killed in combat, a man who was at least as mature and intelligent as you were and who you had to pretend was not?" (Heller 99). In probing the idea of sanity in war, Heller points out that only crazy men are going to go "out to be killed" (306). The structure of the novel places the burden on Yossarian by making him personally "responsible for almost everything in the book. 'Yossarian is the only one flying missions...who fully understands the absurdity, the danger, and the evil of doing so'" (Sniderman 2). Yossarian's reaction wherein he makes a conscious decision to no longer participate in war leads to the accusation from his superiors that "'[t]he men were perfectly content to fly as many missions as we asked as long as they thought they had no alternative. Now you've given them hope, and they're unhappy. So the blame is all yours'" (Heller 423). "By making everything Yossarian's fault, Heller shows that the individual is still stronger than the establishment [so that i]n the end, the individual is responsible for his own life" (Sniderman 2). To eliminate the threat to established conformity found in Yossarian's subversive rebellion, his superiors decide to accede to his demands, conditionally.
"We're going to glorify you and send you home a hero, recalled by the Pentagon for morale and public-relations purposes....Don't worry about the men. They'll be easy enough to discipline and control when you've gone. It's only while you're still here that they may prove troublesome. You know, one good apple can spoil the rest..." (Heller 429).
"They'll let me go home a big hero if I say nice things about them to everybody and never criticize them to anyone for making the rest of the men fly more missions" (Heller 436). In deciding to just leave rather than become a pawn in the ongoing justification of war, Yossarian's own perspective indicates, "'I'm not running away from my responsibilities. I'm running to them. There's nothing negative about running away to save my life...'" (Heller 453). "Gerald B. Nelson says that Yossarian 'sees what is wrong, the corruption that greed and envy have brought in their wake, but he can do nothing save run away'" (Sniderman 1). By fleeing, Yossarian's role as action hero is ultimately countered by his role of active withdrawal from the "heroic" scene after much exploration of values and perspectives.

Heller's exploring of the opposing perspectives of war and life in general are presented by a variety of characters each shedding insight into the internal conflicts heightened by the external circumstances of war. Several of these are worthy of note. "'You put so much stock in winning wars,' the grubby iniquitous old man scoffed. 'The real trick lies in losing wars, in knowing which wars can be lost...'" (Heller 243). This unusual Italian philosopher puts all war into a new perspective with his exploration not just of war but its consequences on the countries involved. One of the most perplexing explorations of perspective is experienced by the chaplain. While attempting to follow Yossarian's example of escape by hiding in the hospital, the chaplain tells a lie about his supposed medical problem and finds that for him the sin (evil) is good. He was a master of the
technique of protective rationalization, and he was exhilarated by his discovery. It was miraculous....[H]e saw...vice [turn] into virtue and slander into truth, impotence into abstinence, arrogance into humility, plunder into philanthropy, thievery into honor, blasphemy into wisdom, brutality into patriotism, and sadism into justice. Anybody could do it; it required no brains at all. It merely required no character. (Heller 364)
This final concept reflecting to character is an important one in dealing with the use of varying perspectives in value or moral judgements. To complete the in depth exploration of opposites Yossarian asks, "How many honest men were liars, brave men cowards, loyal men traitors, how many sainted men were corrupt, how many people in positions of trust had sold their souls to blackguards for petty cash, how many had never had souls?" (Heller 414). Heller does not present clearly defined answers, but he raises many deeply provoking questions through Yossarian's war experiences. It is in the all encompassing depth of self-exploration and the exposing of the ridiculous, often immoral values that surround him that Yossarian achieves his main role of heroic in thought. Interestingly, however, by resorting to escapism, Yossarian is in the process of shedding his claim to the heroic.

The Color Purple, written in 1982, also presents a shared emphasis on the heroic in action as well as the heroic in thought found in its main character. Celie escapes the world of suppression in which she lives by discovering the freedom to think for herself and express herself independently of everything else around her. She discards the notion of blaming her color or her financial status for her lot in life (Walker 214). "[W]e all have to start somewhere if us want to do better, and our own self is what us have to hand" (Walker 278). Abused by her step-father, beaten by her husband, Celie eventually finds the courage to stand up for her sister Nettie and others in her immediate realm of influence. Although submissive to the men in her life on the surface level, inwardly she begins a fight for an aloofness that eventually is realized with Sugar's assistance. With her newly discovered independence, Celie finds her own personal success in business making pants and selling them. This venture gives her the independence to become her own person. Celie's success in freeing herself from the influences of others leading to contentment in herself is found when she writes, "If she come, I be happy. If she don't, I be content" (Walker 290). Celie's philosophy reflects that "...I believe. God is inside you and inside everybody else. You come into the world with God. But only them that search for it inside find it" (Walker 202). Some of Celie's contentment arises from an hardening that is the result of her rough early years which have taught her to not have expectations.

In contrast, her sister Nettie leads a charmed life of heroic action reaching out to others in need. Rescued from abuse by their step-father through Celie's intervention, Nettie has the opportunity to pursue her education. She then finds herself attached to a missionary couple headed to Africa with their two adopted children, Celie's illegitimate babes taken from her years before. In Africa, following the death of the wife, Nettie finds herself with a husband she loves and respects and the right to have an active part in the lives of her niece and nephew. Speaking of their work in Africa, Samuel observed, "There's something in all of us that wants a medal for what we have done. That wants to be appreciated. And Africans certainly don't deal in medals. They hardly seem to care whether missionaries exist" (Walker 243). There are moments of discontentment in Africa and her frustrations in trying to be reunited with Celie, but Nettie weathers these with the optimism of her charmed life. Nettie has a compassion not found in her sister who has been hardened by her experiences. Nettie cautions, "[U]nbelief is a terrible thing. And so is the hurt we cause others unknowingly" (Walker 191).

Alice Walker creates diverse characters in these sisters who each demonstrate a great deal of depth. With Celie's journey into independence, the other characters are impacted--Nettie through the softening of her early years, but even Mr. ____ is started on a new journey in awareness because of the growth in Celie. Celie's and Nettie's final arrival at peace and contentment with what life gives them comes from opposite directions, but the end result is the same--they each complete heroic journeys.

Ultimately, a hero as evolved in American literature, particularly the works previously cited, is one who rises to meet a challenge. Most frequently, to be considered heroic, this facing of the challenge will involve self-sacrifice on the part of the hero who is generally concerned with others above self. In a true hero, there is consistency in action rather than a single burst of heroic effort. Generally, the hero has or arrives at an honest self-perception which includes his/her faults. Finally, the heroic overcoming can be exhibited in outward action (in the more traditional hero) or in thought perceptions (in the more modern hero) with the two often overlapping. In Melville's Captain Ahab and Ishmael, Alcott's Jo March and Professor Bhaer, Crane's Henry Fleming, Cather's Father LaTour, Warren's Willie Stark and Jack Burden, Ellison's "invisible" narrator, Heller's Captain Yossarian, and Walker's Celie and Nettie the reader is presented with an array of varying heroic and antiheroic characters. These literary heroes are frequently individuals who would be considered ordinary in the eyes of the observer outside the microscopic insights of the literary work in which he or she lives. Additionally, the role of perception in defining the hero cannot be overlooked creating the potential for as many definitions and interpretations as there are readers to define and interpret. Thus, when dealing with the heroic in American literature, a much broader outlook is needed than in viewing the heroism of daily life. In the final analysis, however, the heroic in American literature serves to enlighten the reader and force a probing examination of the literary personalities and development of perceptive insights that carry-over to daily life.


Works Cited


Alcott, Louisa. Little Women. 1868. Intro. Ann Douglas. NY: Signet Classic, 1983.

Beaver, Harold. "Stephen Crane: The Hero as Victim." Modern Critical Interpretations: Stephen Crane's The Red Badge of Courage. Ed. Harold Bloom. NY: Chelsea House Pub, 1987. 65-74.

Cather, Willa. Death Comes for the Archbishop. 1927. NY: Vintage, 1990.

Crane, Stephen. The Red Badge of Courage 1895. Intro. Pascal Covici, Jr. NY: Penguin, 1985.

Credy, Edwin H. Stephen Crane. Rev. Ed. Boston: Twayne Pub, 1980.

Ellison, Ralph. Invisible Man. 1947. NY: Vintage, 1990.

Heller, Joseph. Catch-22. 1955. NY: Dell, 1990.

Melville, Herman. Moby-Dick. 1851. 8 Classic American Novels. Ed. David Madden. San Diego: Harcourt, 1990.

Millhauser, Milton. "The Form of Moby-Dick." Critics on Melville. Ed. Thomas J. Rountree. Coral Gables: U of Miami, 1972. 76-80.

Ruoff, James. "Humpty Dumpty and All the King's Men: A Note of Robert Penn Warren's Teleology." All the King's Men. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice, 1977. 84-92.

Sniderman, Stephen L. "Power and Responsibility in Catch-22." Critical Essays on Joseph Heller. 2 page class summary for Heroic American Literature, Phillips University, Spring 1993.

Tanner, Tony. "The Music of Invisibility." Ralph Ellison: A Collection of Critical Essays. Ed. John Hersey. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1974. 2 page class summary for Heroic American Literature, Phillips University, Spring 1993.

Walker, Alice. The Color Purple. 1982. NY: Pocket, 1985.

Warren, Robert Penn. All the King's Men. 1946. NY: Harcourt, 1982.


© 1993, 1998 - Faye Kiryakakis

Send to supersecretary_f@yahoo.com .

Index of essays American Literature

Index of literary essays