Shakyamuni Buddha and Buddhism

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wheel follows the ox drawing it similarly good thoughts lead to good actions. Most religious systems decompose the individual into a body and a soul. In this division the body includes what Buddhists (and modern psychologists) would regard as the mind. Very often in this scheme the mind is located in the heart. There is no location given for the soul. It is in fact a mysterious entity created by God. While the physical body perishes at death the soul goes either to Heaven or to Hell where it is reunited with a body (perhaps similar to the old one) and continues its existence as one of sensuous conform or of torment depending on the destination. The Buddha dispensed with this scheme which was similar to the system advocated in the old Vedas. Instead the Buddha identified five constituents of the empirical person, the first of which (rūpa) was physical and the last four (collectively called nāma) were mind components. These five components have been called Groups of existence or Five Aggregates (pańcakkhandā). These are:
1. Corporeality (rūpa). This is the physical basis of existence. The five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue and body) are especially important in generating the various signals which are processed by the mind (which is also recognised as an organ in is own right).
2. Feeling (vedanā). Feelings are a by-product of the contact between the organs of the physical body and the external world. They are classified in various ways - wholesome and unwholesome, gross and subtle, painful and pailful, etc.
3. Perception (sańńā). This is how the mind processes the feelings that its sense organs transmit. No two individuals have the same perception of the same feelings they may experience.
4. Formations (sankhārā). The formations are the deliberative acts of the individuals. it is often referred to as karmic formations.
5. Consciousness (vińńāna). This is the condition of being aware of the environment in which the individual exists.
While corporeality is readily understood, the other four components are more subtle. Three of these, viz. feeling, perception and consciousness, are known to modern psychological science, and the Buddhist interpretation does not differ substantially from the scientific one. But the concept of "formations" is not known to modern psychology. At the same time there is nothing in conventional psychology that denies its existence. Here the Buddhist view transcends that of the conventional analysis of mental components.
Buddhist Attitude to God... It is first of all necessary to establish what is meant by the term "God." This term is used to designate a Supreme Being endowed with the qualities of omnipotence and omniscience, who is the creator of the universe with all its contents, and the chief law-giver for humans. God is generally considered as being concerned with the welfare of his human creatures, and the ultimate salvation of those who follow his dictates. God is therefore a person of some kind, and the question whether such an entity exists or not is fundamental to all theistic systems. In contrast to this notion of a personal God some modern theologians have interpreted the term "God" as representing some kind of abstract principle of good (or "ground of being"). This view was first developed in the ancient Indian Upanishads where God is equated with an abstract principle (Brahman). The ancient Indian philosophers could entertain such a view because they also had a theory of karma which really does away with the need for a personal God. Buddhists too have a theory of karma, which is different from that of the Hindus, and which even more unequivocally dispenses with the need for a Deity. The use of the term "God' to denote an abstract reality by monotheistic theologians who have no theory of karma is difficult to justify; one suspects that this is merely a device to explain away the contradictions that arise from the notion of a personal God. In fact, the actual practice of theistic religion proceeds as if God is a real person of some kind or other. Just as Buddhism rejects the notion of a Supreme God it also rejects the notion of an abstract God-principle operating in the universe. The notion of Brahman (in the neuter) is not discussed at all in the Buddhist texts, and even in India it may well be a post-Buddhist development resulting from the attempt to reconcile the belief in God(s) with the powerful critique of the Buddha. It is therefore the attitude of Buddhism to the notion of a supreme personal God animating the Universe that we must consider. One popular misconception of Buddhism must be dismissed at this point. This is view that the Buddha is some kind of God figure. In the Theravada tradition the Buddha is regarded as a supremely enlightened human teacher who has come to his last birth in samsra (the Buddhist cycle of existence). Even Mahayana traditions which tend to think in terms of transcendental Buddhas do not directly make a claim for Buddha as God. Thus the Buddha cannot be considered as playing a God-like role in Buddhism. In the Buddhist texts Mahā Brahmā is the equivalent of God and is represented as claiming the following attributes for himself: "I am Brahmā, the Great Brahmā, the Supreme One, the Mighty, the All-seeing, the Ruler, the Lord of all, the Maker, the Creator, the Chief of all appointing to each his place, the Ancient of days, the Father of all that is and will be." The Buddha dismisses all these claims of Mahā Brahmā as being due to his own delusions brought about by ignorance. Mahā-Brahmā is seen simply a deva unenlightened and subject to the samsric process as determined by his kamma (cf the Brahmajla and the Aggańńa Suttas). In the Khevadda Sutta he is forced to admit to an inquiring monk that he is unable to answer a question that is posed to him, and advises the monk to consult the Buddha. This clearly shows the Brahmā acknowledges the superiority of the Buddha. In the West, a number of "arguments" have been adduced to prove or disprove the existence of God. Some of these were anticipated by the Buddha. One of the most popular is the "first cause" argument according to which everything must have a cause, and God is considered the first cause of the Universe. The Buddhist theory of causation says that every thing must have preconditions for its existence, and this law must also extend to "God" should such an entity exist. But while the "first cause" claims that God creates everything, it exempts God from the ambit of this law. However if exemptions are made with respect to God such exemptions could be made with respect to other things also hereby contradicting the principle of the first cause. But the argument which the Buddha most frequently uses is what is now called the "argument from evil" which in the Buddhist sense could be stated as the argument from dukkha (suffering or unsatisfactoriness). This states that the empirical fact of the existence of dukkha cannot be reconciled with the existence of an omnipotent and omniscient being who is also all good. The following verses from the Bhūridatta Jataka bring this out clearly: If the creator of the world entire they call God, of every being be the Lord Brahmā, why does he order such misfortune and not create happiness but only discord? If the creator of the world entire they call God, of every being be the Lord Brahmā why prevail deceit, lies and ignorance, and he such inequity and injustice create? If the creator of the world entire they call God, of every being be the Lord Brahmā, then an evil master is he knowing what's right did let wrong prevail! The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha.

Buddhist Attitude to Man... In considering the Buddhist view of man we are essentially looking at the psychological postulates of Buddhism which has sometimes been described as a psychological system. Given the meaning normally attached to psychology, this is too narrow a description of psychology. Buddhism deals with many other matters which are not normally included in psychology. But there is a psychological dimension to Buddhism. This is because of the great concern which Buddhism has with the mind and with the training of the mind. In this sense Buddhism is unique amongst the world religions. The first stanza of the well-known book of Buddhist aphorisms, the Dharmapada, sums up very well the primacy that Buddhism gives to the mind:
Mind is the forerunner of all states, mind-based and mind-made are they. If one speaks or acts with an evil mind, suffering results, just as the wagon

Human Beings” can be referred to as the teacher of all teachers in this world and the heaven realm. “The Right Understanding of All” can be explained as someone who has an omnipresent perception, as written in Diamond Sutra, “The Tathagata knows and sees all minds of all beings.” Therefore, students should not harbor impure thoughts since it will be known by the Buddha.“The Tathagata (Thus Come One),” means the Buddha’s Dharma body that is motionless, coming from no where and gone to no where. It can also be referred to as both the Buddha’s Dharma body and his body of transformation, which manifests itself in this world to save sentient beings.“The Worthy of Offerings (Arhat)” - A Buddha has gone through many kalpas of practice and saving all sentient beings. He has ceased afflictions and transmigration and achieved the utmost, perfect Buddhahood. A Buddha therefore truly deserves offerings from both worldly and heavenly beings. “The Perfect Clarity and Conduct” - A Buddha has achieved “Three Powers of Perfect Clarity” and “Five Perfect Conducts.” “Three Powers of Perfect Clarity” refer to the supernatural power of clairvoyance (the wisdom of knowing transmigratory states and karmic retributions of all sentient beings), the supernatural power of knowledge of past and future (the wisdom of knowing the endless past and future lives of all sentient beings), and the supernatural power of ending contamination (the wisdom of ceasing all afflictions and discontinuing transmigration). “Five Perfect Conducts.” refer to the sage conduct (the Buddha’s and Bodhisattva’s conducts of renunciation, upholding precepts, and practice), the purified conduct (the practice of ceasing sexual desires by both venerables and lay people), the celestial conduct (the conduct resulted from the understanding of the ultimate truth), the infant conduct (with regard to the benefit of self, it refers to the elimination of discrimination like an infant’s conduct; with regard to the benefit of others, it refers to the saviing of those infant-like sentient beings), the disease conduct (save the sentient beings from committing those disease-like sins).“The Well Gone” means the immaculate departure. A Buddha has ceased transmigration. Although he appears or disappears for the sake of sentient beings , he constantly remains in the state of Nirvana. He has gone beyond the cycle of birth and death.“The Knower of the World” - A Buddha possesses the wisdom of perfect understanding of the truth of the universe. He fully understands the ultimate truth of both the mundane and supramundane worlds.“The Great Tamer” - A Buddha is adept in using various methods to adjust and control the practitioner’s mind, like a horse tamer. Incorrect ways of reciting the Buddha’s name include: 1) chanting the Buddha’s name for the sake of selfish gains (e.g., success in career and academic work, monetary gain); 2) asking the Buddha to bring misfortune to others.

THE BUDDHA’S TITLES... The individual Buddha’s names have their different meaning. For instance, the meaning of Shakyamuni Buddha, if translated literally, is as follows: “Shakya” means an ability of merits and virtues or an ability to endure, and “muni” means an ability to be silent. Shakyamuni Buddha, by his acts of saving all sentient beings via countless ways, represents the Buddha of action. Another example is Amitabha Buddha. This name literally means “infinite radiance” and “infinite life,” as a result of his vows to practice in order to become a Buddha. Therefore, Amitabha Buddha represents the Buddha of merits. The Medicine Buddha is called such because during his practice, he made a vow to rid all sentient beings of their ailment. He thus represents the Buddha of the power of vow. The common titles of Buddhas represent the ultimate wisdom and merit that all Buddhas possess. There is no difference between Buddhas in their merits. For instance, everyone in a class can be called a “student,” a common title, while each person has his or her own individual name. “The Teacher of Heavenly and

Knowledge, Wisdom and Enlightenment... The Buddha traced the root cause of suffering to ignorance; so the search for Enlightenment is the supreme activity for the Buddhist. The activity proceeds at both the intellectual and the intuitive levels. Pure intellectual understanding is not sufficient, although it is often a very good starting point. When Enlightenment is attained, pure intellectual understanding is transcended by an intuitive grasp of the truths of the Universe. If knowledge is the outcome of "intellectual" activity, a person's fund of knowledge at any moment of time is made up of a number of beliefs that he considers valid. The Buddha was quite clear on what he considered legitimate to believe in. In his discourse to the Kālāmas (a people who were confused by the diversity of viewpoints they were confronted with) the Buddha said: "Come, O Kālāmas, do not accept anything from mere hearsay, or from what you have been told, or because it is mentioned in sacred teachings, or because of logic merely, or because of its methods, or in consideration of plausible reasoning, or by tolerating views based on speculation, or because of its appearance of its possibility and because ‘your teacher is venerable.’ But when you, Kālāmas, realize by yourself that views are unwholesome, faulty, condemned by the wise, and that they lead to harm and misery when practiced and observed, then Kālāmas, you should reject them." This is the criterion of acceptability which the Buddha wanted to apply to all claims, including his own. In Buddhism there cannot be room for blind faith, and all propositions, religious or otherwise should be subjected to analysis and practice. The reference to "mere logic" and "plausible reasoning" in the quotation given serves as a caution concerning some extreme forms of "rationalism" which argue that "pure reason" is sufficient to establish the truth of metaphysical propositions (like that of the existence of God). Deductive methods are useful, but as they can only bring out what is already contained in the premises of the argument, they cannot be used as a vehicle for the discovery of new truths. Rightly has the Kālāmasutta been termed the Buddhist charter of free enquiry. As a result of the Buddha's rational and tolerant attitude, early Buddhism never had concepts like heresy, apostasy and blasphemy (and this is true of all subsequent Buddhist schools). In many theistic systems imprisonment, torture and death have been inflicted on people who have refused to bow before dogma. In Buddhist epistemology three levels of understanding are recognized. These are (using the Pali terminology): dii ("views"), ńāna ("science"), and bodhi ("wisdom"). Dii refers to views accepted more or less dogmatically. Not all such beliefs are necessarily harmful, because some people could be motivated to act wholesomely even though motivated by incorrect views. But more usually such "views" can be extremely harmful. The Buddha did not consider knowledge consisting of dii to be useful in the longer term. Dii is often contrasted with scientifically based knowledge, which results from thinking, from learning and from mental development. This is usually terms ńāna or pańńā. The acquisition of this kind of knowledge is useful, and is not discouraged; but it alone will not lead to Enlightenment. This is clearly seen in the case of many eminent scientists, who have progressed far in the acquisition of particular kinds of knowledge, but have not been able to outgrow the dogmatic views inculcated in early childhood. True Enlightenment can arise out of the third kind of knowledge, consisting of wisdom (bodhi) and insight (vipassanā). This results from the intuitive realization of the Buddhist laws and truths after the successful traverse of the Middle Path. The Enlightenment process involves the breaking of the ten fetters (sayojanā) that bind people to the phenomenal world. These are the five lower fetters of personality belief, skeptical doubt, clinging to rite and ritual, sensuous craving and ill-will, and the five higher fetters of craving for "fine material" existence, craving for "immaterial existence," conceit, restlessness, and ignorance.

On Becoming a Buddhist... It is possible for a person to live as a lay Buddhist without any formal ceremony, declaration or rite. However, the traditional formality associated with identifying oneself as a Buddhist is to recite the formula of ‘Going to the Threefold Refuge.’ This involves the formal utterance of the following statements with full understanding as to their import:
I go for refuge to the Buddha, I go for refuge to the Dharma, I go for refuge to the Sangha. For the second time I go for refuge to the Buddha. For the second time I go for refuge to the Dharma. For the second time I go for refuge to the Sangha. For the third time I go for refuge to the Buddha. For the third time I go for refuge to the Dharma. For the third time I go for refuge to the Sangha.
This need not be a public utterance, but could be a self-administered declaration. The person making this choice should have a clear understanding of what the Dharma of the Buddha is. Buddhists repeat this formula periodically, as occasion permits, in order to re-dedicate themselves to the Buddhist goal.

contributing to the death of any living being. This means not only the actual killing but also "causing to kill." However, this rule does not require one to be a vegetarian, only that meat consumed should not have been "specially killed" for direct, personal consumption. Meat purchased in the market does not come under the "specially killed" category.
2. Abstention from Theft. adinnādānā veramanī sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I agree to follow the precept of not taking that which is not given). Theft is interpreted widely as taking that which is not given. It includes fraudulent behaviour generally.
3. Avoidance of Sexual Misconduct. kāmesu miccācārā veramanī sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I agree to follow the precept of abstaining from sexual wrongdoing). Misconduct here means not only overt acts of sexual violence like rape, but also adultery in general. It must be remembered that Buddhism does not endorse any particular kind of marriage, so this precept requires that sexual relations should be confined to what is socially and legally acceptable as a marriage relationship.
4. Abstention from Wrong Speech. musāvādā veramanī sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I agree to follow the precept of abstaining from wrong speech). Wrong speech involves a great many things apart from uttering falsehoods. It includes insulting speech, malicious speech, even gossip.
5. Refraining from Intoxicants. surāmeraya majja pamā dahānā veramanī sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I agree to follow the precept of abstaining from the liquor and spirits that cause inattention). This is generally taken to mean avoiding alcohol, drugs, etc., which tend to "confuse the mind." Some people interpret this precept not as an absolute prohibition of alcohol (as in Islam), but only against intoxication and inebriation through the use of alcohol or drugs.
While the five precepts are usually stated in negative terms they have their positive counterparts (e.g. the principles of non-injury and loving-kindness, honesty, sexual propriety, truthfulness and sobriety.)
Higher Precepts and Meditation... Some Buddhists observe the Eight Precepts once a month (usually on the Full Moon Day, which has traditionally been a day of religious observance amongst Buddhists). The three additional precepts are: 6. Abstaining from eating after mid-day. 7. Abstaining from dancing, singing, music and shows.
8. Abstaining from garlands, scents, cosmetics and adornment.
It will be seen that these three additional precepts do not involve weighty moral principles like the 5 basic precepts. They are of use for those who are desire some degree of withdrawal from lay life but are not prepared to make a full-time commitment. A further step in this direction is to take two additional precepts making 10 in all, which are often taken for a longer time than the once-a-month practice of the eight precepts. These two additional precepts are:
9. Abstaining from luxurious beds. 10. Abstaining from accepting gold and silver.
The third precept is also expanded to a rule enjoining chastity. The extreme step along this line of renunciation is to become a Buddhist monk (which involves following some 220 rules). This will suit only a very few persons in any given Buddhist community. Since monks live on the charity of lay Buddhists only a very small proportion of Buddhists can be monks. For lay Buddhists the keeping of the five basic moral precepts of Buddhism, is quite adequate. It must however be kept in mind that keeping these precepts in their totality is quite demanding, but it is a goal that lay Buddhists should aspire to. Buddhists should also seek to engage in short periods of meditation as a regular activity (e.g. 15 - 30 minutes every day).

The Five Precepts... The "Going for Refuge" formula is very often followed by the formula of "Taking of the Five Precepts." These precepts constitute the basic ethical norms Buddhists hope to follow, i.e. forms the layman's code of conduct. They define the ethical rules which a lay Buddhist must follow in daily life. They are not commandments but "rules of training." It is customary to formally state these rules either daily or on formal occasions but it is not the recitation of the rules that matter but their observance. In many Buddhist countries the precepts are "administered" formally by monks, but this is not necessary. In the following we give the precept in Pali, its approximate translation, and a few explanatory comments:
1. Non-Destruction of Life. pānātipāthā veramanī sikkhā pada samādiyāmi (I agree to follow the precept of abstaining from the taking of life). This involves not

Adoration to the Triple Treasure: Adoration to Avalokitesvara*
Who is the Great Compassionate One! Om to the One Who leaps beyond all fear! Having adored Her, may I enter into the heart of the Noble, Adored Avalokitesvara! Hers is the completion of meaning; It is pure, - it is that which makes all beings victorious - and cleanses the pain of all existence; Om, - O Thou Seer, - World-transcending One! O Hail to the Great Bodhisattva! All, - all is defilement, defilement, earth, earth. Do, do the work within my heart. O great Victor, I hold on, hold on! To Indra** the Creator I cry! Move, move, my defilement - free one! Come, come, hear, hear, a joy springs up in me! Speak, speak, give me direction! Awakened, awakened, I have awakened! O merciful One, compassionate One, of daring ones the most joyous, hail! Thou art all successful, hail! Thou art the great successful One, hail! Thou hast attained mastery in the discipline, hail! Thou hast a weapon within Thine hand, hail! Thou hast the Wheel within Thine hand, hail! Thou Who hast the lotus, hail! Hail to Thee Who art the root of eternity! Hail to Thee Who art all compassion! Hail! Adoration to the Triple Treasure! Hail! Give ear unto this my prayer, hail!
* Avalokitesvara (s), Kanzeon (j), Chenrezig (t), KwanYin (c) ** INDRA also Sakra (S). The Hindu creator of the world. According to Buddhist Scriptures, Indra was converted to the Dharma and is often portrayed as asking questions.

Karma and Intention - An early Buddhist teaching says: "What we are today comes from our thoughts of yesterday, and our present thoughts build our life of tomorrow. Our life is the creation of our mind." Karma means intended action, and is a dynamic concept. It is not fate or predestination, but a consequence of what has gone before. In other words, you are now in circumstances because of your thoughts and decisions, and this is an on-going process. That is, new actions create new Karma. Intention is a major part of Karma. If you come home and accidentally trip over the dog and hurt the animal, this is not intended and has no effect. However, after a hectic day, you come home and kick the poor dog, then negative Karma is generated. All the combined intended actions add up to what you are now.
The Buddha saw this as an explanation of the different circumstances that all living beings find themselves in.
Karma is closely linked with dependant origination, where it is the consequence of the law of cause and effect. In the Bible, it says that we reap what we sow, and karma has the same impact. Obviously, we also are subject to non-karmic forces such as the ageing of our bodies. And there are circumstances, which are natural and also affect our lives. But in addition to that, the Buddha said that we are subject to this karmic effect where the ethical actions and thoughts we have will have a positive effect on the future and on our spiritual development. The Buddha is quoted as saying: "Do not overlook negative actions merely because they are small; however small a spark may be, it can burn down a haystack as big as a mountain." And the Buddha also said: "Do not overlook tiny good actions, thinking they are of no benefit; even tiny drops of water in the end will fill a huge vessel." In the West, we often associate karma with fate and it has this idea of a future which is predetermined. In Buddhism, karma is the reaping of past actions, but also offers the possibility of determining our own future with our actions and thoughts today. This means that no future event is locked in, and what happens today and tomorrow will create the personal and global world of the future.
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Updated: 12/4/04