Fisica Ionica
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BEHAVIOURAL EFFECTS OF AIR IONS Ions in the Environment Electrical charges of the atmosphere are called "ions". A ion is an atom which has gained or lost an electron. If the atom loses an electron, it becomes positive, while the addition of an electron makes it a negative ion. Generally speaking, air ions are classified according to their size: small (molecules), medium (tiny particles), and large (dust). Of most immediate concern to use here are the small ions, for it is they that are the most mobile of the three categories and, for that reason play a central role in atmospheric influences upon the human system. It is useful to review some of the main sources of air ionisation within the earth's atmosphere. Small ions, those electrically clusters of molecules of atmospheric gases, of both positive and negative polarity, are naturally generally by radiation processes, radioactive fallout, cosmic (non solar) sources, natural radioactive materials in the atmosphere, and some aspects of solar radiations lying beyond the ultraviolet range particularly during solar disruptions(I). Dr SW Tromp has pointed out that the ionisation capacity of different properties of radioactive substances in the upper part of the earth's crust seems to be of importance for living bodies (3,P326). Extending this concept, Tromp explains that the air present in the pores of the soil and in larger subterranean cavities is continually ionised by external radiations in combination with local mineral deposits. In this connection, radium examination is a main ionising factor in the soil (35, P238). This, plus other localised conditions, eg the presence of large airborne mineral components (dust and precipitation), can alter the rate of air ionisation from one geographical position on the earth to another(35, P246). The production of air ions varies not only in space, but also in time. Dr Reiter advises that the rate of ionisation is influenced by air pressure. As air pressure changes from day to day and from season to season, the rate of ionisation due to solar and cosmic sources also varies(I). In addition to identifying natural air ion producing sources* and their variation with time and geography, investigators pay close attention to the relative values of ion concentrations and ion ratios - how these two factors differ under varying circumstances. The period of time over which small ions maintain their effective radiation (their "half-life"), depends on the amount of pollutants in the air. The cleaner the air, the longer the half-life of small ions, especially on high mountains(I). Clean air means high concentration, providing there is an ionisation source present. A simple rule, given by Reiter, is: the lower the visibility the lower the small ion concentration; this is because low visibility means the presence of many large *According to researcher Charles Topley, there are several places in the world where cascades or waterfalls are capable of producing a fine spray which holds a negative charge. The inhalation of such a spray can have a curative, calming effect (K). Another author, Joseph B Davis, MD, reports on repeated measurements, taken at the health spa, Bad-Gastien, which revealed that in the vicinity of waterfalls there were up to 37,000 small negatively charged ions/cc of air, whereas control measurements on the same days of a distance from the falls were consistently 800 or loss ions/cc of air (K6). Based on measurements he has taken, Topley also confirms that coniferous trees give off a considerable amount of negative ions into the surrounding atmosphere, more than does any other tree he has yet investigated(K). particles on to which the small ions very readily attach. Foggy or dusty environments are low in small ion concentrations(I). Usually small air ions exist in a proportion of 5 positive to 4 negative ions. In the open country, in conditions of sunshine, 400-500 air ions per cm3 are found. Values can go up to 1,000 in the mountains and down to 10 in crowded cities (K-2). Air ion ratio variations, Dr Reiter reveals, occur in the free atmosphere under normal conditions, the ratio depending on the strength and polarity of the environmental electrostatic field. The normal electrostatic polarity of an outdoor environment is that of a positive charge in the air space above the earth, and a negative charge at the surface of the earth itself. Between the two polarities of this electric atmospheric field, there is a continuous movement of ionic charges, both towards the positive air space above and the negative earth below. The ration of positive to negative air ions is known to remain fairly constant under normal conditions*. But with a disturbed atmosphere, such as a thunderstorm, the polarity of the atmospheric field can be reversed, which correspondingly reverses the flow of ionic charges. Under these conditions the ration of positive to negative ions is altered, with the negative ions gaining in activity, as compared to normal(I). Reiter further pointed out that the electrical conductivity of the atmosphere is related to the small ion concentration. Any reduction in small ion concentration results in a corresponding reduction in atmospheric conductivity(I). It is obvious that air pollution is an anathema to small ions. If one begins with a clean air mass having a relatively high concentration of small ions, and adds to it a pollutant, eg cigarette smoke, the concentration of small ions drops extremely(I). Large ions tend to have a long half-life and low mobility(I). In many instances large ions are formed at the expense of small ions (35, P243). Measurements taken by Reiter at various factory sites confirmed the predominance of large ions. All types of combustion, Reiter clarifies, yield charged particles which tend to be large; the polarity** of the charge however, depends on what is being burned(I). Reiter believes that air pollution is a major cause of changing ion ratios in the environment, disturbed atmosphere being another. Ions and Human Biology Our knowledge of air ion behaviour in the open environment receives further illumination from clinical, laboratory findings, involving human subjects, accumulated since the 1920's. In Moscow, around 1919, Prof. AL Tchyevsky began the first systematic large-scale investigations of human responses to air ions. Then, in about 1920, Prof. F. Dessauer of Frankfurt, Germany, began similar studies. Subsequently a number of researchers in several countries embarked upon such investigations. Basically, what both Tchyevsky and Dessauer discovered was that individuals alternately exposed to negative and positive ions under experimental conditions reported effects to the nervous system, the blood stream, the respiratory system, and the endocrine glands. And the large majority of the subjects tested evidenced *The ion ratio, though more or less balanced in natural production, is affected by the fact that negative ions are more mobile than the positive(I). **Air bushing past a metal surface is positively charged. Positive ions increase if the surface is heated. As a result, air in the neighbourhood of a functioning iron stove or central heating pipes is rich in positive air ions (35, P243). Enclosed spaces in buildings, automobiles, airplanes, etc. are though to be frequently over-saturated with positive ions. beneficial effects when exposed to negative ions, but undesirable effects*** when inhaling positive ions(26, P29), (35, P259). Those first air ion discoveries have been superseded by more contemporary investigations, the results of which, broadly speaking, confirm the earlier pioneer findings. One of the foremost contemporary authorities on air ion effects on human biology is Prof. AP Kruger, Biologist, University of California, Berkeley. He writes that upon initial observation,
Enlarging upon his position, Kruger observes that negative air ions have been demonstrated to have an accelerating effect in certain physiological processes associated with breathing. By contrast, inhalation of positive ions has been found to produce swelling of the nasal mucousa and irritation to positive air ions can be duplicated by the intravenous injection of the neurohormone, serotonin. Like positive ion effects, the serotonin effects can be reversed by treatment with negative air ions (K-1). On the basis of these facts, Kruger thinks it is reasonable to postulate that positive ions are "serotonin releasers," and that a local accumulation of serotonin in the trachea is the immediate cause of positive ion effects (K-1). Prof. F.G. Sulman, Pharmacologist, The Hebrew University, Jerusalem, like Prof. Kruger has gained international recognition for his experimental work involving air ion effects upon human biology and behaviour. Sulman related that both positive and negative ions in the lungs are taken up into the blood stream, and whereas the erythrocytes of the blood pick up air oxygen, thrombocytes react to the positive ions releasing their neurohormone, serotonin (K-2). Sulman also refers to the findings of two other researchers, Winsor and Beckett (1958), which showed that the inhalation, by humans, of air containing 3.2x104 positive ions/cm3, reduced maximal breathing capacity by about 30%(K-2). Further clinical evidence for the physiological effects of ionised air comes from Dr I H Kornblueh, who has been engaged in experimental work with air ions for over 20 years. During this time he has treated hundreds of patients and a variety of complaints with air-ion therapy. In conversation with Kornblueh he maintained that *** It has been found that the law of optimum stimulation, which seems to dominate all electro-biologic phenomena, is also applicable to the influence of air-ion currents. The effect might be favourable up to a certain maximum value, but this changes into a reverse effect if the optimum is surpassed. (35, P259) there are constitutional differences in the way that various humans respond to ionised air, ie that natural physiological, biochemical differences between individuals can cause different individual reactions to ionised air, and that there are some persons who do not respond at all. However, of those who do respond, the vast majority respond to negatively ionised air; a small percentage respond only to positive ionisation. This, from his research evidence, Kornblueh concludes that "not all people have the same electrical sensitivity; it is a very peculiar thing for which we have no satisfactory explanation"(L). Continuing, Kornblueh pointed out that the following categories are particularly sensitive to the inhalation of small lair ions; children; the old; the sick; persons under stress. And in treating patients for burns with negative air ions, it was discovered that mental alertness had also increased. Dr Kornblueh offered an interesting observation on the effects of air ions upon gatherings of people. According to him, where there is a number of people, eg in an enclosed space, the number of negative small ions get used up quickly, leaving a predominance of positive ions. The concentration of positive ions tends to make people feel uncomfortable. The introduction of negative ions, he says, improves substantially the environment wherein a group of people are congregated(L). At present, Kornblueh explained, most places in the world do not keep a record, nor have any idea of their environment ion count. Nevertheless, he reckons that within the next few years ion counts will be made routinely at all meteorological stations in the United States. But for the moment, reliable instruments for good measurements are lacking(L). Ionising Winds It is recognised, and generally accepted by many researchers* of "ion phenomena", that a certain type of wind present in several areas of the world, but known by different names, depending of the country, is associated with significant physiological and psychological effects upon human populations. Typically this wind is hot and dry, and brings with it, an invasion of positive ions. Listed below are several geographical locations showing the name by which the wind is known in that are: LOCATION.................NAME OF WIND Germany........................Foehn &
Tramontana *Dr Reiter, whose work is mentioned elsewhere in this section, does not accept some of the claims made by some of his colleagues, as he feels they are inadequately supported by rigid scientific experimentation. He is, nevertheless, scientifically objective in his scepticism, as he does not say that the findings reported by others bear not truth, but only that, in order to be accepted with scientific certainty, these reports should be supported by a larger number of experiments, and greater control and precision in experimental methodology(I). British Research Engineer and Inventor Charles Topley, who works in close liaison with a team of medical researchers on various uses of air ion therapy, believes that the effects of the "ionising winds" (the writer's term) are mainly of "mental" (psychological) significance(K). During a visit by this writer to Topley's laboratory, he explained that as a result of exposure to the ionising winds, human mental processes are slowed down. This occurs, he maintains, because the "negative feedback" mechanism of the body's metabolic process is affected (K). Symptoms begin, says Topley, as a kind of "nervous sickness," excess migraine and sick headache. Everyone, ill or healthy, is to some degree affected. In illustration of his point, Topley cites a situation apparently present in parts of France where, with the coming of the Autan, a certain increase in anti-social behaviour is anticipated among local populations, irritability and short tempers being recognised concomitant of the Autan(K). For many years inhabitants of mountain areas, particularly in the vicinity of Germany, Austria and Switzerland, have talked and complained about "mountain sickness,", a peculiar assortment of depressive illnesses believed to accompany the cyclic appearance of the Foehn winds. It has even been suggested by some that Foehn-type winds have, on occasions, reached London, causing ill-health and discomfort to unwary victims in that city (14). But Dr Reiter, who manages an ion-measuring station just at the foot of the Alps, outside the small town of Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, holds a more conservative approach towards the many claims attributing ill-health to the Foehn. Elaborating upon his position, Reiter explained that originally, earlier this century, it was thought that Foehn might bring high concentrations of positive and negative ions which could affect man, but that recent measurements show that there is no specific variation of the small ions (I). Foehn, in Germany, descends from the Alps and is characterised by high temperature (25oc) and low humidity (20%). It is a clear wind, most of the particles having been washed out by precipitation on the southern, Italian side of the Alps before entering Germany. The concentration of ions both positive and negative, is relatively high, but the ration of positive to negative is normal. The same, Reiter says, is true of any clean air mass, for example, a polar air mass has a high concentration of small ions. Foehn, Reiter maintains, cannot be regarded as an isolated meteorological situation because there are associated with it other phenomena, eg squall lines, cold fronts or thunderstorms, which might also affect certain human biological responses. Consequently, he feels that any biological/behavioural effects attributed to Foehn cannot be explained solely in terms of ion concentration(I). Mr Topley, however, does not fully share Dr Reiter's view about the effect of Foehn winds. Topley explained that the electro-environmental conditions of the city of Munich are such that they attract the Foehn to it. By contrast, nearby open country areas around Munich, like Garmisch-Partenkirchen where Reiter's ion-measuring station is located, may not feel the effects of Foehn so intensely because of their different electro-environmental circumstances(K). The Sharav of Israel represents an ionising wind occurring in a different topographical and climatic setting from that of the Foehn of Germany. Professor Sulman, who over the last 9 years has conducted controlled experiments, as well as general empirical observations of person exposed to Sharav, describes typical complaints associated with its presence: depression, irritability, insomnia, and tension - these, together with a multitude of additional physiological complaints (K-4). Even among healthy persons, Sulman has reported decreased alertness during Sharav(K-5). "Weather sensitive" people studied by Sulman and his research assistants started suffering 1 to 2 days before the onset of Sharav (K-4). From this, researches surmised that their complaints were due to changes other than heat. Suffering began at a stage where there was neither increased heat nor decreased humidity, which, to the researchers, meant that subjects were probably reacting to the weather front with it s typical changes of air ionisation (K-2). The resultant diagnosis of the research team was that reactions may be due to hyperthalmic serotonin hyperactivity, or hyperproduction provoked by a steep increase in ionisation of the air which the changing weather front pushes ahead before it arrives (K-4). Sulman concludes that the underlying problem of Sharav is a stress reaction exerted on the entire endocrine system, and in this connection he especially notes the adrenal cortex and medulla(K-5). Referring to the behavioural effects brought on by the Khamsin (the equivalent of Sharav, in Egypt), Time Magazine has reported that "...the Khamsin can also madden men. Automobile accidents are far more frequent when it is blowing, crime rates increase by as much as 20%... judges in some Arab countries take a lenient attitude toward crimes committed during the Khamsin" (26, P73). Negative Ion Therapy For an indoor environment, the artificial production of negative ions has been found to be an effective means of counteracting the effects of excessive positive air ions. Mr Charles Topley, who has worked for many years on aircraft electrical and mechanical design in England, and who has patented several inventions, has developed a negative ion generator which he believes is the most effective yet devised. The ion generator, which Topley says took him seven years to develop, is a rectangular shaped, self contained unit, just a little larger than a conventional table model radio, and is powered by standard home voltage. In explaining some of the theory underlying the therapeutic value of his invention, Topley points out that is the negative small ions which are the most beneficial to all forms of life - botanical, as well as animal and human. With most existing ion generators, Topley continues, the ions do not travel much beyond the emitting orifice of the device. Consequently to receive any benefit, subjects would have to sit close to the machine for long periods of time. From an engineering point of view, Topley says, the chronic problem has been that "ion recombination" takes place so close to the source of generation that little or no effect was realised several feet away (K). Thus, a unique feature of this machine is that the negative ionised air gas molecule it produces enables the negatively charged air ion to be carried throughout the room, rather than be dissipated soon after its emission from the generator. And second, the "moisture envelope" facilitates a more effective ion assimilation by the respiratory system and ultimate absorption of the ions into the blood stream (K). In order to distinguish the type of the air gas molecule his ion generator produces, in contrast to other ion generators, Topley applies the term "Hydroscopic clean negative ions" (K). Mr Topley also has his own views on why artificially produced negative ions have become necessary, and how the earth's atmosphere, the world over, came to be as positively charged as it is today. Basically, Topley's theory is that originally, before the advent of industrialisation, the net charge of the atmosphere's small ion was negative - not positive as now (K). According to Topley, all air pollutants, nuclear, industrial, and domestic, result in increasing a positive charge in the surrounding atmosphere. Even the air in open country areas, Topley feels, is predominantly positive because it probably received wind carried pollutants which originated in distant industrial zones (K). One electric power station alone he says, produces enough sulphur-dioxide (SO2), with its affinity for positive electricity in the atmosphere to extend over vast areas of the earth's surface (K). In the home, Topley explains, the viewing surface of a television set gives off into a room, electric emissions ranging in magnitude from about 7,000 volts to about 11,000 volts. These emissions, he says, have the effect of producing a positive charge into the air and on the surface of all items within immediate range of the TV set (K). But upon switching on his negative ion generator, and measuring the ratio of small air ions in the room on a special device which he designed for that purpose, Topley claims that the meter moves gradually away from a positive reading, towards neutral, and eventually registers a full negative reading as the negative ion saturation of the room becomes complete (K). His negative ion generator functioning in a TV room , Topley says, neutralises positive emissions as they are produced by the TV set (K). Mr Topley, in collaboration with a team of physicians, is currently preparing a series of experiments, using negative ion therapy for various somatic disorders at selected British medical centres. Topley corroborates an observation given by Dr Kornblueh to the effect that sick persons evidence a quicker biological response to the presence of negative ions than do healthy persons(K),(L). Topley's explanation for this is that illness constitutes a kind of deficiency, an imbalance of the body's bioelectric energies, which negative ions help to restore(K). As a supportive example, he offers the complaint of insomnia, particularly among older people, who as a group apparently have difficulty remaining asleep through the night. In an atmosphere of negatively ionised air, Topley asserts, a full night's sleep is virtually guaranteed. Topley, who is himself a vibrant 73, says that since he developed his negative ion generator he no longer has difficulty in getting adequate sleep(K). But with all that, Mr Topley maintains that the most important application of his negative ion generator is its prophylactic aspect, treating "well" people by preventing illness before it occurs. The obvious advantage of negative ionisation to healthy persons, he asserts, is to strengthen those organs in the body which are responsible for natural immunisation and protection against disease, for Topley believes that in a large majority of people such as organs as sluggish and malfunctioning(K). "We go about," he said, "thinking that we are well, but we are not generally as well as we could be"(K). Thus, Topley concludes that his negative ion generator has both prophylactic and therapeutic applications. It prevents as well as restores. There is yet another provocative dimension to the experimental work now underway by Mr Topley and his medical associates, and which could have direct behavioural implications from both a psychological and a sociologist standpoint. This concerns a theory which seems to be evolving, centered on what Topley calls the "recalcitrant child" - such a child is defined as "badly behaved", and differs from the autistic child, or from children whose abnormal behaviour is due to obvious physiological impediments. Topley is satisfied, on the basis of clinical evidence yielded by British medical researchers, that the casual factor for bad behaviour in recalcitrant children is an excess of the lead deposits retained in the body. These findings, Topley says, revealed that when lead deposits were reduced, behaviour improved(K). Elaborating, Topley holds that the bioelectric charge of the human body is basically more positive than negative, but the recalcitrant children are even more positively charged than normal. This excess positiveness, Topley feels, is somehow responsible for the retention of greater amounts of lead(and to some extent nickel and other elements) for long periods of time within the circulatory system(K). Topley contends that pollutants which make our bodies over positive enter our systems primarily through eating, drinking and breathing - some foods, and some environments being more detrimental than others. The therapeutic solution which Topley proposes for this situation is exposure to the negative air ions produced by his generator. This, he says, will have the effect of neutralising the body's over positive condition and returning it to a more natural bioelectric state, which he believes is slightly more negative than positive(K). As an outgrowth of his findings with "recalcitrant children," Topley is inclined to believe that to a certain extent even some adult anti-social behaviour*, including some crimes, might have a basis in excess lead deposits retained in the body(K). One final and compelling observation concerning air ions and social behaviour was offered by Mr Topley. According to him, a negative ion generator unobtrusively operating in a conference room would tend to produce a calming, soothing effect in such a setting where nervousness and conflicts are often to manifest. If, for example, two different groups, eg labour and management, had convened to discuss particularly difficult issues wherein considerable tension could be expected, the presence of a negative ion generator could not guarantee an amicable consensus of opinion, but it would lessen the amount of tension during the meeting. This application of negative air ionisation, Topley feels, would be useful in any social gathering where negative ions can be made to saturate the environment(K). Considering the foregoing evidence for an air-ion/behavioural tie-in particularly in light of his latter observation, this writer queried Topley as to whether or not, by altering the natural concentrations and ratios of ambient of air ions, human behaviour was in any way controlled or manipulated. Topley responded emphatically that the human will, that human behaviour, is no way controlled, but what negative ionisation helps achieve is the creation of a physical environment wherein the most difficult issues between opposing parties can be handled with greater rationale and tranquillity, and with less emotional tension(K). *Experimental use of Topley's negative ion generator in some mental institutions in England is yet in its initial stages. Consequently, as of this writing, there is no experimental evidence linking psychopathic disorders with lead deposits in the body, nor any clear assessment of how mentally ill persons respond to negative ion therapy. Ref: Vol 1. - "Dimensions of Electro-Vibratory Phenomena" August, 1975 By - Victor R. Beasley PhD.
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