THE DAILY CHRONICLES:
Emergence of the Problem

"THE RANDOM KILLERS: A serial murder epidemic sweeps the United States"(Newsweek, November, 1984)

"Hundreds of Serial Killers Might Be At Large"(Life, August, 1984)

"Four thousand a year - dead. Killed by total strangers. It's an epidemic of murder in America - murder with no motive" (HBO, Murder: No Apparent Motive, 1984)

The seventies and early eighties witnessed the beginnings of a moral panic surrounding the "discovery" of a new breed of predator: the serial killer. The exploits of individuals such as Ed Kemper, John Wayne Gacy, Ted Bundy, Richard Ramirez, and David Berkowitz were the focus of much media attention, bringing fear and disgust to the hearts of citizens and policy-makers alike, at the same time as they struck a disturbing chord within humanity's morbid fascination with its own potential for darkness.

The emergence section of the policy analysis framework highlights the recognition and treatment of the problem within the media and popular culture. Although the need for validation research of criminal profiling has not been identified as a problem by the media, the portrayal of profiling and its general origins within the serial killer "phenomenon" have contributed to the lack of credibility and attention it has been given by many individuals within the social sciences. Throughout this section, links to internet sites will be used to illustrate the social construction of both serial homicide and profiling.

The Social Construction of Serial Homicide

Philip Jenkins' (1994) innovative cultural analysis of serial homicide examines the role of media and relevant interest groups in defining the serial homicide problem in Using Murder: The Social Construction of Serial Homicide. As noted above, between 1977 and 1982, multiple murder had become a widely recognized issue in the mass media, becoming the theme of more books and films in 1980 and 1981 than the two previous decades combined (Jenkins, 1994).

During this same period, the Federal Bureau of Investigation's (FBI) Behavioral Science Unit was also becoming interested in the study of the problem, and the inability of many jurisdictions to recognize that they may be dealing with the same offender for a single series of homicides (linkage blindness). Consequently, the Criminal Personality Research Project was formed as a means of developing a classification system capable of correlating offender characteristics with crime scenes. The findings of this project, and their contribution to profiling theory are detailed in the assessment section of the policy analysis framework. In fact, it was during this period that the very term serial killer" was coined by the FBI and was acknowledged by both the academic and popular culture circles.

Jenkins traces the origins of multiple murder throughout history, and questions the uniqueness of the 70's and 80's in terms of such offenses. Another common myth portrayed in the media he challenges is the claim that the United States is the sole contributor to this type of criminal (see Leyton, 1986 for this representation). For example, he suggests that serial killers account for about 1 or 2 percent of homicide victims in both the United States and Britain; however, the real difference lies in the fact that the homicide rate in the U.S. is simply far higher than its British counterpart (Jenkins, 1994). Has anyone forgotten England's Jack the Ripper or Germany's Georg Grossman, Karl Denke, and Fritz Haarman who combined are thought to have killed around 130 Germans between 1914 and 1921 (Ibid)? Many authors concede the argument that serial killers have existed throughout history; however, they still claim it is a twentieth century phenomenon due to the much greater numbers of serial killers in our period of history (See Doug's Little Page of Murder).

Jenkins outlines the Reagan Justice Department's dissemination of the serial homicide statistics and even finds authors that point to the origins of serial killing beginning with the famous Jack the Ripper case. He argues that the data on multiple murders from earlier periods cannot be compared to contemporary times because we cannot assume that earlier cases were as likely to be preserved in the media as they are now (Jenkins, pg. 29). However, he notes that the majority of serial murder cases that are documented as occurring between 1890 and 1940 actually claimed extreme numbers of victims per offender (20-30), compared to the 1980's average of "only" two or three victims (Ibid., pg.30).

So how then was the serial murder problem able to be defined as an "epidemic" of unprecedented proportions? One point must be clearly stated first. Jenkins' social construction thesis does not deny that serial homicide has increased in the United States over the past three decades. Hickey (1997) reanalysed data to yield serial homicide rates per 100,000 of population and found a 4.5 fold increase in the last 50 years. However, this and other analyses have indicated that, while there is an overall increase in serial homicide since the 1950's, this is "largely attributable to the rise in population and in homicide generally" (Stote and Standing, pg. 316).

Jenkins is simply arguing that although there has been such an increase, serial murder still only accounts for one percent or less of all homicides. The media latched on to misrepresented statistics presented by the Reagan Justice Department which grossly exaggerated and distorted the problem. Jenkins is also quick to point out that the Justice Department was defining the serial killer problem as an epidemic at the same time as it was seeking to re-establish credibility lost during the Hoover years. Additionally, establishing itself as the leaders in defining and studying the problem allowed the FBI to gain jurisdictional powers over crimes that were previously beyond their reach. The end product of these efforts was the creation of the National Center for the Analysis of Violent Crime (NCAVC) and the VICAP computer crime scene tracking system. Both of these inititiatives will be discussed in more detail in the implementation section of the policy analysis framework.

Claimsmakers and key interest groups also played a role in the dissemination of misinformation about the serial homicide proble, according to Jenkins. In the wake of the Adam Walsh murder, victims advocacy groups attached the serial murder problem to concerns over missing children in the United States. Led by John Walsh, this movement was claiming that 20,000-50,000 stranger abductions occur each year, with 80 percent of these children muredered within the first two days (Kiger, 1990). If this figure were true we would have 16,000-40,000 children murdered by strangers annually in the United States (Ibid). Actual figures are much lower, ranging from around 20-300 each year. Feminist groups also latched onto the figures as further evidence of the misogyny inherent in contemporary society. Emphasizing the sexual nature of these killings, the term femicide was coined to represent the growing danger serial killers meant to womankind.

Moreover, Jenkins follows the explosion of the slasher film in the 1980's, and the mythological presentation of the serial killer as an almost superhuman predator. With the rise of "superhuman predators", came the need for "supercops" to stop them. The FBI's role in such an effort became the focus of significant media attention after Thomas Harris' Silence of the Lambs illustrated the special "mind-hunting" techniques that were being developed in Quantico: agents had learned to get "into the head" of the serial killer.

The Worldwide Web As Popular Culture: An Examination of the Images of the Serial Killer and Profiler in the Media

A tour of the internet provides no shortage of examples for Jenkins' presentation of the social construction of both serial murder and profiling. As noted above, fueled by the success of such films as Silence of the Lambs, and the criminal careers of such individuals as Jeffery Dahmer, and more recently Andrew Cunannan, the serial killer and profiler continue to be a source of fascination in popular culture. There are many serial killer web sites, and each of the more "popular" killers have received the priveledge of sites devoted solely to their exploits.

We are often reminded that:

"The modern day serial killer...walks among us. Dines with us. Attends church with us. And Befriends our children. Beware humanity! The Serial Killer is among us!"
Perhaps you are in the need for a visit to Cannibals Anonymous. They have a ten-step program that is sure to relieve some of your thirst for blood.

Better yet, let's take a look at a graphic display of the serial killer trading cards. Then, when we are so inclined we can:

"Let the whole world know who we think is the most 'gnarly' killer" by posting our thoughts on a wall.

It must be made clear that the presentation of the above sites is not to claim that they set out to "worship" the serial killer. Both of the above sites present useful informational resources and case histories, and one includes a memorial to victims that is in very good taste. The point being made is twofold: popular culture mediums demonstrate a continued fascination with the serial killer which contributes to the mythological conception that has been fostered for the last decade; additionally, some of the indirect (albeit unintentional) language and representations of the serial killer can send out an undesired glorification of the crimes. The Serial Killer Info Site, Mind of a Killer and Serial Killers! sites are excellent resources on the web without any objectification or unnecessary fear-inducing language.

A disturbing example of the glorification of serial murderers and the lack of concern for their victims can be found in the story beneath the following headline:

"AOL to ax serial killer Web site"

As the above link discusses, America Online agreed to shut down a serial killer web site which included a fictional "self-start serial killer kit" and a page of serial killer Keith Hunter Jesperson's writings, one of which compares his murder victims to "roadside litter left by passing truckers". Although the web site manager claims such material is important to understand how serial killers think, a web page is hardly the appropriate forum for such activity. Not only does it add insult to the injury already faced by the victims' families, but by recognizing such hateful words in such a forum it is yet another example of the glorification and mythological construction of the serial killer within popular culture.

No better example of the "serial killer as media hero complex" can be found than in the high prices paid for such items as their signatures or even strands of hair. Take the following headlines from October, 1996:

"Accused serial killer becomes Cosmo celebrity and cult favorite: Rogers will go on trial in death of 1 woman, is suspect in other cases".

A major vehicle for both increasing the public's perception that there are a large of number of serial killers out stalking the streets of the United States is the horror film genre, particularly those of the "slasher" variety. Film depictions of the crazed masked killer stalking picture-perfect teenagers out to have a good time were especially predominant throughout the 1980's. Not only did these inticately link together images of sex and violence, but the killers also displayed the superhuman qualities Jenkins noted above. Nothing could stop them from coming back alive in the next sequel to stalk more randomly selected victims.

While the 90's saw a decrease in the slasher genre, the huge success of Scream promises to bring it new life,so to speak.

The serial killer film received its greatest boost from Silence of the Lambs, as noted above. Serial killer movies and books were produced at a rapid rate to feed the public's hunger. Not only was the general fascination with serial murder increasing, but some reporters thought the genre was giving some killers ideas, as the following headline suggests:

"Dances With Werewolves: America's fascination with serial killers is reaching an all-time high - and may be fueling their deeds"

Time magazine reporter Richard Corlis notes:

"Really now, America, your fondness for intimate atrocity is getting out of hand. Aren't there fewer cases of serial killers in the U.S. than there are books, movies and TV shows about them? It's sick but true: a statistically minute aristocracy of psychotics has commandeered pop culture".

Further reviews of the oversaturation of serial killers in the media can be found in:

"A psycho is on the loose again (yawn) in Copycat"

and

"Movie has case of serial dullness"

The O.J. Simpson case had not even gone to trial yet before a TV movie was in the works. Similarly, the stories of both the Heaven's Gate and Andrew Cunannan spree murders were immediately made into screenplays following the actual events:

"ABC planning film on alleged serial killer"

Given the proliferation of the serial killer throughout popular culture, it is no wonder that many surveys reveal Americans' fear of being the victims of spree or serial murderers when in fact the risk of victimization is so very low:

"Texans are increasingly worried about crime, survey finds"

There's an even more disturbing side to all of this media attention to serial killers and violence, a side that has found its way all too readily into the Internet. The following link is very disturbing example of many such sites found throughout the web, and is by no means supported by the author of this web site. Rather, the content is discussed here because it sums up the ill extremes of all of the above presentation.

In the wake of the success of Scream noted above, a site has been established that allows those accessing it to imagine themselves in the role of their favorite killer. The rest can speak for itself.

"Pick Which Killer You Want To Be"

It is hard to imagine how a site like the one just linked above can be classified as a "game" given its graphic and violent content that is personalized against specific individuals in many cases. One could safely argue that such material is potentially very damaging to kids and should meet the same fate as the AOL serial killer site reported above. "For an excellent bibliography of theses and dissertations pertaining to the horror genre, click here".

The image of the profiler in the media is entrenched in the image of the anonymous Child Abduction and Serial Killer Unit working miles below ground in windowless offices, solving society's darkest crimes. As noted above, this MO for the media gained momentum after Thomas Harris' Agents Crawford and Starling were introduced to America in theatres everywhere. The following story from the Washington Post uses this imagery:

"Anonymous Unit Works on Fringes Of Famous Cases"

These agents have the instincts of the very killers they are charged with apprehending; they are able to walk inside the mind of a serial killer.

"Killer instincts: FBI's own 'Sherlock Holmes' gets inside the head of serial murderers"

The two agents who pioneered modern profiling, Robert Ressler and John Douglas, have been very prolific in terms of academic articles and books, and true-crime accounts of their careers. There is no doubt that both men are responsible for moving criminal profiling to the forefront of popular culture and law enforcement advancements. However, the titles and imagery within their biographical accounts also fuel the mythological conception of the profiler. For example, Ressler's first account is told in Whoever Fights Monsters and Douglas' was "Mindhunter: Inside the FBI's Elite Serial Crime Unit. Mindhunter in particular played a role in developing the image of the profiler as mythical hero due to the greater attention payed to media publicity and quick turn-over time in follow-up books. A book review illustrative of the media coverage of this book is found in the following link:

"FBI agent-author tracks killers - by getting inside their heads"

Despite such imagery both books provide excellent accounts of the development of profiling as an investigative tool.

Two recent additions to the NBC and FOX prime-time line-ups portray profilers as having an almost "psychic-like" ability to visualize and reconstruct the crime scene. Both Dr. Samantha Waters of NBC's Profiler and Frank Black of FOX's Millenium have "flashes" of visual insight which tells them the sequence and meaning of events at the crime scene.

Robert Ressler, the agent noted above who both coined the term "serial killer" and initiated the Criminal Personality Research Project with Douglas, points out that:

"Unlike the fictional movie profilers, a real life profiler often gets into a case far after the event of a murder. Sometimes its several weeks or months before we get into a case. However on special occasions he may be onto a location within an hour of the actual event.

"What you don't see in the media is the lengthy examination of the crime scene, photographs and videotapes, careful examination of the autopsy and the photos."

"The media portrayal usually shortcuts the lengthy process by mindflashes of the profiler at the scene of the crime which would indicate that some sort of psychic experience is going on. And of course that is nonsense".

The field of criminal profiling has taken on new challenges with the hiring of former agents by either prosecution or defense to either aid in the investigation, offer testimony, or assist in the claims of the defense. On several occasions, Ressler and Douglas have come up against each other, the most notable case being during the trial of Jeffrey Dahmer. The following headlines track a similar occurrance during the JonBenet Ramsey investigation:

"Ramseys hire only "the best"

"Profiler a Hollywood guy"

"Expert: Killer knew JonBenet"

Conclusions

The focus of this section has been on the social construction of serial murder and profiling within the popular culture. It has not been an attempt to discredit the many successes and advances made by those who have worked hard to establish offender profiling as a viable investigative tool. This section's concentration on the imagery and mythology presented in the popular culture has been used as a medium to highlight the need for research into the validity and reliability of profiling. Only through reserach can we hope to meet even greater advances in the field.

The point that serial murder is not as prevalent as once hyped in the media also does not suggest that it need not be studied further. The incomprehensible nature of this crime brings with it a tremendous fear that affects not only the victims' families, but society at large as well.

While serial homicide may not be increasing exponentially, stranger homicides have increased, and with them greater challenges to the investigator (Egger, 1990). Egger (1986) cites a Memphis study which found that 84 percent of murders were solved in a day if the victim and offender knew each other, but if they were strangers this success rate dropped 69 percent. By providing investigator's with a likely motivation and personality make-up of the offenders, profilers give investigators a chance at solving the case where before one might not have existed. Profiling can be used by investigators to weed through a large list of suspects (as is common in stranger homicides) much more efficiently and direct attention to likely individuals.

The assessment section will take an academic approach to understanding what profiling really is, highlighting the fact that its principles really are not that far away from what is already generally accepted within the general field of psychology. Taking a more empirical approach to profiling will not only enhance its validity, reliability, and utility, it will establish greater credibility amongst law enforcement and in the courtroom. This will be the emphasis of the decision-making section of the framework.