"Textbooks are often discussed in terms of a metaphor taken from drama or film, with the textbook envisioned as a script" (p. 8).

As manifestation of theory reflecting on practice, the textbook is less a blueprint for knowledge building and more an outline of dramatic possibility that can be realized in the performance of language learning, with the teacher as the director/actor and the students as the actor/directors.

A textbook is much more than a collection of classroom activities adapted to print; but neither is it an obtuse summary of the writer's theoretical approach. Unity and coherence are obtained by the interaction of theory and practice - praxis - and the material writer's synthesis of this with the text format.

"The fact that no commercially sponsored textbook has ever been produced that portrays the actual language used by learners - the real voice of the learners - leads me to conclude that the marketplace would not accept it" (p. 17).

Here Dubin comments on yet another dilemma the materials writer faces in the development of theoretically sound texts of practical utility - the many pressures of the free market.

As mediator between theory and practice, the materials writer is faced with the dilemma of synthesizing the many aspects of our complex and ever-evolving knowledge of the nature of language learning. Dubin discusses three such aspects and how writers grapple with them: theories of interlanguage, reading strategies vs. reading for its own sake, and theories of task-based learning.

"Materials writing as a process is pointless without constant reference to the classroom" (p. 95).

The authors find that the process of materials design only becomes dynamic in so far as it is subject to evaluation in actual classroom application. Only then can we be sure that the materials adequately address the various objectives.

Teachers play the role of learners in that, as materials designers, they are constantly involved in studying and learning about their students: their needs, their desires, their context. This role is essential to effective materials development.

"Expressivity means not only the ability to say and write things fairly clearly, accurately and fluently but also to express what you really want to express and to give some choices in language. Depth comes from knowledge of language choices" (p. 54, citing O'Neill, 1989).

One example of how the focus on the needs of individual learners and the complexity of the communicative process has influenced materials design, the author cited here expresses one theoretical basis for personalization of materials. Learner autonomy and personal responsibility for learning are goals of such an approach.

Multi-syllabus design systematically combines many elements of language learning, combining both form- based materials and function-based materials.

Other approaches, such as lexical-syllabus design, explicitly emphasize a particular element of language, in this case vocabulary. Springing from advances in corpus linguistics, a lexical- syllabus approach to materials design organizes language practice around contexts, focusing on development of high-frequency vocabulary.

At the other end of the spectrum are process- oriented syllabus approaches. Such approaches have developed out of increased interest in the psychological processes of language learning and the individualized learning styles.

"In sum, the difference between an intermediate student and an advanced student does not seem to be in the inventory of grammar items but in the improved accuracy and automaticity of use ..." (p. 48).

In her discussion of conceptual framework elements to be considered in materials design, Byrd reminds us that language acquisition is a cyclical building process. Unlike materials design in other content areas, ESL/EFL grammar materials cover the form, meaning, and usage of certain elements of language at one proficiency level only to revisit the same elements at consecutive levels.

It might be possible that the love of being entertained and the value placed on individual self-expression in U.S. society has led some U.S. materials writers, language teachers, and teacher educators to a xenophobic rejection of the use of memory and memorizing as valued tools in the learning process (p. 56).

Here, Byrd discusses the trap of confusing the principled frameworks of communicative teaching approaches with dichotomous exclusion of certain techniques of language learning. In this case, she reminds us that memorization is a valid skill to be exploited. Indeed, one of the possible advantages of learning a second language as an adult is the ability to access these mature cognitive skills.

The value of authentic examples of usage (in contrast to invented examples) is that they may be both more representative and more 'natural.'

Furthermore, authentic examples can be used both as models of forms and ways to discusses common difficulties with these forms (when using authentic nonnative language, for instance).

Invented examples, on the other hand, may be used to facilitate understanding where authentic usage is difficult to find.

As always, when writing instructions for practice activities, we must consider our audience. Some instructions may be difficult for students to understand, thus the burden falls on the teacher to decode them.

The materials writer must decide whether to err on the side of less explicit information for the benefit of comprehension or more for the support of the teacher.

"In the past, teachers rarely had the means to analyze the factors associated with grammatical intuition" (p. 554).

Conrad cuts straight to the heart of the power of corpus linguistics and the possibility that it will not only reconfigure how grammar is taught but how it is conceptualized. Through empirical examinations of language in use, it is possible to reveal the unconscious factors related to native usage and choice, most importantly factors of context, genre, and register.

"Corpus linguistics leads to adescription of grammar that is consistent with native speaker use, accounts for variation in a systematic way, and is useful for English language teachers and students" (p. 558).

The further strength of this field of inquiry is that, as the data and analysis expand, it's benefits will become immediately accessible to teachers and learners in ways that much research related to second language acquisition simply is not.

Learners need to study the formal/syntactical elements of language through the analysis and comparison of various contexts of usage.

Teachers are no longer exclusively dependent on native speaker judgments of accuracy and 'naturalness.' Instead, teachers and learners have access to a growing body of empirical and representative evidence.

This new evidence does not suggest that we should consider only the issue of frequency in making curricular decisions. As always, the functional load of certain forms must betaken into account as well as student needs.

If the emerging knowledge is to affect the classroom, teachers may need disregard their preconceptions and consider implications for teaching that are contrary to their traditional conceptions of what should be treated in the language classroom and at which level. It may take a willingness to adapt and adjust.

"The movement in ESL toward integrated language teaching and using more language in context would indicate that this area of grammar will grow in the future, and these types of activities [Language in Context] will become more common."

Recent findings in second language acquisition and in corpus linguistic studies suggests that these researchers are correct in this prediction. Teachers should consider treatments of language in context when evaluating materials for use or designing their own materials.

"The greatest challenge we faced was trying to define our categories and make each one distinct from the others without much overlap."

In developing their taxonomy, the researchers found many activities that seemed to belong to more than one category, thus complicating their task. Furthermore, there were occasionally activities distinct from any other category but too rare to create a separate category, so the infamous category of "other" was instituted.

A small but significant number ofactivities were categorized as Language in Context, demonstrating the influence of current acquisition and pedagogical theories on the field of materials design.

In contrast, there was a marked lack of instructional materials that dealt explicitly with the subject of learning strategies, a common theme emphasized elsewhere in teacher training and professional development.

The Language in Context category covered a wide range of sub-types including multiple choice, word ordering, classification, fill-in-the-blank, sentence, clause, phrase and manipulation, sentence, completion, sentence creation, and identification and analysis.

All of the Language in Context activities utilized extended texts of one to five paragraphs to investigate certain grammar points.

"As important as it is to develop our understanding of the grammatical facts of the language we are teaching, it is not these facts that we wish our students to learn" (p. 255).

This statement introduces Larsen-Freeman's concept of grammaring. Grammar teachers should divest themselves of the idea that grammar is a simply a set of rules for memorization. Rather, the goal of learners of ESL is closer to the development of a skill. Therefore grammar is conceived in its active and progressive sense.

Of course, this is merely a principle to help guide the teacher, as Larsen-Freeman also acknowledges the possibility of using explicit rule learning in certain situations. (Cf. Byrd, 1995b).

"With the increased access to large copora of language data that computers afford, it has become clear that grammatical structures and lexical items occur in a large number of regularly occurring patterns" (p. 264).

In support of connectionist models of acquisition, corpus linguistics suggests that much formal acquisition of language is accounted for in principles of cognitive association.

Learning is a gradual process: the teacher of grammar should appreciate that errors are part of the process and that learners may acquire various aspects of a form before reaching accuracy.

Acquisition of grammar is facilitated by meaningful practice in which the learner becomes or is made aware of the forms relevant to that practice. That is, there is a balance to be struck between attention to form and communicative practice with the goal of fluency.

Infamous as the language of exceptions, English grammar is highly constrained by context and word choice. Findings in corpus linguistics imply that ESL/EFL grammar instruction should pay special attention to the relationship between lexicon and syntax.

Furthermore, as language is constantly evolving, corpus linguistics supports the idea of inductive presentation of grammar as opposed to rule-based presentations.

"The use of this research method does not imply that language teaching and learning should rely on decontextualised methods. Instead, the AWL might be used to set vocabulary goals for EAP courses, construct relevant teaching materials, and help student on useful vocabulary" (p. 227).

Coxhead warns against conclusions that utilization of a word list should lead to decontextualized approaches to vocabulary learning, thereby acknowledging this danger in misinterpreting the implications of similar studies.

"Direct teaching through vocabulary exercises, teacher explanation and awareness raising, and deliberate learning using word cards needs to be balanced with opportunities to meet the vocabulary in message-focused reading and listening and to use the vocabulary in speaking and writing" (p. 228).

The AWL should be used by teachers and learners as a tool, not as primary materials.

In creating the Academic Word List, the unit of word family was used, delimited by a free stem and all words being derived from this stem by affixation. Therefore, concept and conceptual are in the same word family. Species and special, however, are not, as the stem spec- is not free-standing.

In selecting words for instruction, range as well as frequency should be considered, as many less frequent words still appear in a wide range of texts from various academic disciplines.

The AWL should not be used simply to derive decontextualized word lists, rather in goal setting and textual adaptation for EAP contexts.

"Most researchers recognize that providing incidental encounters with words is only one method of facilitating vocabulary acquisition, and that a well structured vocabulary program needs a balanced approach that includes explicit teaching together with activities providing appropriate contexts for incidental learning" (p. 286).

Decarrico takes the middle path in the instructed vs. incidental acquisition debate. Implicit vocabulary learning is acknowledged as invaluable for attaining a deeper understanding of word meaning, but explicit learning also has its place.

"It is important that new vocabulary items be presented in contexts rich enough to provide clues to meaning and that students be given multiple exposure to items they should learn" (p. 288).

Decarrico warns against presentation of isolated vocabulary items.

Estimation of vocabulary size is problematic. Deciding what counts as a word (vs. a word family) and other such difficulties lead to varying estimations. Despite some disagreement, however, a base vocabulary of 2,000 words (3,000 for academic learners) is often cited as the minimum size necessary for second language learners.

Extensive reading and book flood approaches are valuable methods for supplying the greater exposure to words required for incremental learning and depth of vocabulary knowledge.

A primary value of training students in vocabulary learning strategies is that it fosters learner autonomy and the skills necessary to extend vocabulary learning beyond instructed contexts.

Teaching collocations and lexical phrases can provide learners with efficient strategies means of interaction and production, especially considering that such language can be connected to contexts and social situations where they are highly productive and occur frequently.

"If in instructional L2 situations incidental acquisition of a large vocabulary is hardly possible, it follows that efficient acquisition of new vocabulary requires a conscious effort from the learner" (p. 65).

The thrust of his argument: Groot sees a large need for explicit learning of vocabulary, justifying development of advanced technological materials.

"We are faced with a dilemma in an instructed L2 learning situation. On the one hand, there is not enough time for exposure to new words of the same intensity as in L1 acquisition. On the other hand, superficial exposure leeds to shallow processing which fails to establish enough associations and links with other words for solid storage and efficient retrieval" (p.67).

The CAVOCA programme was specifically designed to address this dilemma.

Groot states that incidental acquisition of vocabulary from authentic L2 texts is not sufficient for second language learners, even though this seems to be the way by which we acquire the bulk of our vocabulary as first language learners. The primary difficulty with incidental acquisition is that L2 learners often don't have sufficient command of the vocabulary to derive meaning from context.

Despite difficulties with incidental acquisition, learning words from context should be incorporated in instruction as inferring words from context leads to deeper processing of a lexical item and authentic contexts efficiently demonstrate a larger range of information about an item than can be given in a definition.

The CAVOCA is designed to simulate and exaggerate the incidental acquisition process by supplying learners with contexts and interaction with the lexical items to insure deep processing.

"It is difficult for course designers, as well as teachers and learners, to appreciate that items in sets such as months, days of the week, and numbers are best learned, initially, when not learned together" (p. 7).

Nation acknowledges the difficulties the reader may have with the findings he reports. Despite the fact that much of the research cited in this article is more than 30 years old, any cursory survey of language textbooks reveals that teaching lexical sets is still very common.

"In addition to the criteria of frequency and avoidance of interference, course designers need to apply criterion of normal use, meaning that words should occur in normal communication situations, not in contrived, language-focused activities" (p. 8).

Nation argues for using authentic texts, topics, notions, or functions to introduce vocabulary contextually rather than in lexical sets. However, it is also noted, that lexical sets may occur naturally in such contexts, so special attention is required to avoid them.

While teachers have long presented vocabulary items in related meaning sets, current research demonstrates that this creates a bigger challenge for learners than sets of unrelated words. In other words, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, or other such logically related items should not be presented together for memorization.

On the other hand, there is research that supports presenting vocabulary in contextually or thematically related sets. Vocabulary is easier to remember when related by narrative or rhetorical contexts.

Learners themselves may often want to learn vocabulary in lexical sets. It may help them to understand the reasons for not presenting such items together. They can also be encouraged to avoid this practice in their own studying.

Logical/lexical sets should be associated only after the items have been [partially] learned in isolation. At that point, however, connecting these items brings deeper knowledge and understanding of word boundaries.

"While it is useful to recognize that readers have access to a much larger recognition vocabulary than, for example, the vocabulary used in writing, the extent to which we learn vocabulary items, and which items, and for what purposes, will not be understood by a two-way opposition for what is clearly a more complex issue" (p. 28).

In attempting to explain L1 vocabulary growth, many hypotheses consider vocabulary knowledge as either active or passive and as either known or not known. Here the authors highlight an important element of the access hypothesis, which recognizes these false dichotomies and introduces a wider perspective on the possible range of vocabulary knowledge.

"Comprehension improves when students are given the opportunity to develop semantic network connections, relating new information to old information... research findings support teaching vocabulary in semantically related groups. What logically follows is that vocabulary instruction shouldn't be based on lexical difficulty or frequency, as it often is" (p. 33).

In apparent contrast to Nation (2000), the authors suggest grouping words in semantically related sets. Furthermore, they remind us that authentic contexts often provide vocabulary in such sets.

While [adult] L2 learners are limited with regards to linguistic schema (i.e. vocabulary, phonology, etc.), they have to advantage of bringing extensive background knowledge of the world, instrumental motivations for learning the language, and more sophisticated learning strategies to the task of vocabulary development. Therefore, these learners have special needs and resources that should be considered in vocabulary instruction.

Both L1 and L2 research recognize the symbiotic relationship of vocabulary knowledge and reading skills. This connection becomes even more pronounced in academic language contexts.

For incidental vocabulary acquisition to be truly effective, learners need to be explicitly taught strategies for deriving meaning from context.

"Course description and objectives:
An important way in which students demonstrate their understanding of course materials is by writing academic papers. Organization, development, and accuracy play important roles in this type of writing. In this course students will learn about academic writing and about the grammar of academic writing. Through writing, revising, and editing of academic papers, students will practice the features that make for successful writing in university courses."

Even as the most directly form-oriented course in GSU's Intensive English Program, this description from the fall 2001 syllabus still illustrates the underlying task-based approach of the curriculum.

"Computer literacy is an essential skill for university students [in America]. The IEP curriculum is designed to provide you maximal opportunities to increase your familiarity with computers and to use innovations in technology to enhance your language learning." Syllabus, Fall 2001.

The EAP curriculum of the IEP recognizes the ubiquitous nature of computer technology in the modern American university. On of its stated objectives, therefore, is to help students assimilate to this reality. The Structure/Comp courses in particular emphasize the development of these skills, though individual teachers may do this to varying extents.

As one of our cooperating instructors expressed, one of the most obvious needs of the 06-section courses is for supplementary materials that address the needs of learners struggling with more discrete grammar issues. Such materials should be connected thematically the the sections of the text, provide opportunity for extended practice, and explanations of theorems being practiced.

Though many skill areas overlap in the various sections of the IEP, the Structure/Comp courses are the only sections that do focus explicitly on elements of grammar (though the presentation is often implicit). Therefore, it is of great importance that students in these courses receive as much support as possible.

Also, the IEP facilitates the assimilation of its students into the computer culture of the American university by requiring the use of email, word processing, and online activities. At least part of the importance of creating online language materials is the reinforcement of these skills. For some students, it is an incredible transition to make, and can only benefit from having simple, relevant online materials to supplement their language learning.

"Looking Ahead is built on a plan that gives students experience at learning and using the grammar of written English in a spiral pattern that keeps returning to the same vitally important topics at all four levels."

from Byrd & Reid, "The Ideas That Lie Behind Looking Ahead," Retrieved at http://www.lookingahead.heinle.com/filing/ideas.htm

The series editors explain that one of the central concepts behind the series is based on incremental and cyclical learning through a spiraling of the formal instruction throughout the series.

"Scientific observation can be applied to fields other than science. For example, it is reported that judo originated as a result of observation. A great master was mediating one day about snow falling on a branch. Instead of letting the accumulating snow's weight get so big that it would break it, the branch" yielded" and let the snow fall on the ground. The conclusion? The branch uses the snow's own strength against itself. The master developed a technique for using that principle in wrestling: judo" (p. 155)

This passage in the text is used by students in an activity where they analyze text in order to inductively determine article usage with generic, plural and non-count nouns.

This series also works from the premise, as true for second language learners as first language learners, that one of the most important elements of learning to write well is intensive, critical reading of authentic texts. It provides many authentic examples of academic writing to this end.

Each chapter begins with a statement of it's specific academic writing goals, of the specific relevant grammatical points which it treats, and of the content theme of it's reading and tasks. For example, in Chapter 6, the writing goals are develop and utilize skills of observational in informational writing. The chapter treats nouns, noun phrases, generic nouns, present tense verbs, passive voice verbs, and logical organizers. The chapter's content deals with application of observational skills as an element of the scientific method.

The textbook takes an inductive approach to the presentation of specific grammar points, with extended explanation reserved for the Grammar and Language Reference section (GLR) in the appendix. Almost every grammar section begins by having the student examine occurences of certain issues in authentic texts and then proceeds to give other examples before moving onto more explicit practice activities. The learner has the option of looking at the reference section or not.

"A basic rule of [textbook] implementation: you can only implement materials if you know they are there" (p. 418).

Byrd warns teachers against insufficient analysis and investigation of their textbooks. This advice can well be applied to designers of materials supplemental to a textbook. Making a preliminary overview of the textbook's resources is essential.

"We are generally part of a larger system that does have legitimate conerns about being sure that all students receive instruction that leads to a more or less uniform result. At the same time, each of us is different in our background knowledge and personalities - as are our students" (p. 422).

While the ideal materials would always be personally designed and manufactured by the teacher (or the students) for each particular group of students, in practice there are competing concerns that must be acknowledged.

In any case, until the revolution, we will all be constrained to textbooks and working conditions where such individualized concern is next to impossible.

Also, we must distinguish between the analysis of the textbook selection process and the implementation process. The teacher must ask questions that are much more related to the particulars of her context, program, learners, etc.

The language textbook has certain characteristics that distinguish it from textbooks of other disciplines. Most notably, there are often two parallel threads of general content: the language content and the thematic content.

After analysis of the content, the teacher should turn to the activities in the book. An inventory of the textbook's activities should help the teacher decide questions about which activities to use in class, which for homework, which for review, which to discard together, etc.

There are two primary guidelines product developers may consider during the implementation of usability testing:

• Consider all difficulties encountered by users to be indicative of flaws in the design of the material and not the fault of the users.
• Do not ignore users whose actions differ from those of other users; these actions represent individual differences that must be considered by the developer. (p. 17)

After testing, the following guideline may be utillized:

• Consider the problems revealed in the testing and avoid leaping to the single, easiest solution.
• Determine what may underlie a problem.
• Consider at least two possible solutions to each problem.
• Reflect on solutions and consult other developers before making any final decisions. (p. 17)

These guidelines are as relevant to testers of other commercial products as they are to ESL/EFL materials designers.

As product developers use potential consumers to test their product, materials developers should use second language learners. Learners have a unique perspective as individuals and stakeholders in learning materials. Furthermore, many learners are computer literate and can offer well informed feedback.

In their testing, the authors focused on three basic areas of the materials, the design, the navigation, and the content. These focuses led them to collect data about specific issues of the materials which lead to specific actions by the designers.

Feedback from the participants led to a number of significant and valuable modifications of CD-ROM language materials of these designers, including modification of presentation and navigational features as well as content adjustments.

"... team-working on supplementary materials is like an affair ..." (p. 130).

Why, Adrianne-Jawdat-Jun-Todd-Trikera!
I didn't know you cared!

"If I see you in Kathmandu and don't recongise you, you should not worry. I will go a little distance, remember you, and come back to say hello" (p. 136).

I lost a girlfriend once because of such behavior.

These group dynamics are further modified in relation to the extended group of editing and designing professionals that are also essential to the process.

"Writing 'recipe' romances, for example, forced me to reexamine my own prose: to eliminate semicolons (successful romance writers do not use them), to embed short strings of descriptive adjectives (difficult for an academic writer), to be alert for "the less I know, the more I write" syndrome, and to recognize my tendency to use multisyllabic words when inspiration (and clear, short vocabulary) evade me" (p. 65).

I once told Pat Dunkel I felt my writing was being ruined by academic discourse. She was highly offened and reminded me that academic writing is merely writing of another type, as concerned with writer's voice and audience expectations as any other genre. Reid proposes that the same applies to materials design and textbook writing.

Here again we hear the caution that materials writing takes commitments of large, uninterrupted chunks of time, not small, scattered moments here and there (and what a relief to here that other grad students have project completion issues). [Reminds me of something Chompsky once said. He attributed his apparent brilliance to an ability to shift between tasks rapidly and efficiently, with no need for transition periods - highly effective multitasking. The rest of us, I'm afraid, must work diligently at one task at a time.]

"Like input, which can be either uncomprehended noise or valuable for acquisition, output can be produced mindlessly or it can be created by the learner under conditions that facilitate acquisition" (p. 24).

Relevant to our task as CALL materials designers, this passage reminds us of the value of production that enourages mindfulness, awareness of errors, and an opportunity to correct those errors.

1. The linguistic characteristics of target language input need to be made salient.

2. Learners should receive help in comprehending semantic and syntactic aspects of linguistic input.

3. Learners need to have opportunities to produce target language output.

4. Learners need to notice errors in their own output.

5. Learners need to correct thier linguistic output.

6. Learners need to engage in target language interaction whose structure can be modified for negotiation of meaning.

7. Learners should engage in L2 tasks designed to maximize for good interaction.

Of the implications of SLA theory to CALL task design, the first is that materials developers should approach their task with a concept of the computer as participant in interactions with the learner.

" The fact that learners are put into work groups or given a task, however, does not mean that they will interact, that they will interact in the target langauge, or that the interaction will facilitate language learning" (p. 27).

The problem addressed here applies to all language classroom contexts but may be even more pertinent to computer assisted learning contexts as the technology tends to stifle interaction in one's immediate, temporal/spatial reality. The author argues that this dynamic can be challenged with creative use of computer-based materials.

The value of interactive computer based activities (as opposed to non-computer based) is the level of attention to languae that becomes possible (via manipulation, visual presentation, etc.).

When designing interactive computer- based activities (for student-student interaction), the author suggests a critical consideration is assigning different roles to learners and clarifying those roles. Furthermore, the role should be essential to the task of the group as a whole.

"Teachers can control the environments they establish and can shoose to design classrooms and labs so that the equipment, software, and staff move in concert to enable learners to be self-directd" (p. 391).

In her introduction, Healey indicates that part of our role as educators, teachers, and materials designers is to foster autonom in our students. Developing this self-reliance in learners can be seen as a goal equally important as language aquisition itself.

Developing an awareness of how one learns, that is, a meta-cognitive awareness of learning, is essential to becoming an autonomous learner.

"Books are yesterday's technology -- bulky, environmentally suspect, imppermanent, expensive, hard to find, forever out of print, slow to produce, slow to write and slow to read, and a strain on the eye" (p. 68, citing Noam 1998).

The authors acknowledge the likely effects of technology on the way people will read in the future. Paper sources are likely to be demoted to second class in the near future.

Johannes Gutenberg and 10,000 Chinese scholars turn in their graves.

Electonic text annontation technology gives readers the opportunity to exteranlize their interaction with the reading text. Such features include tools for note-taking, highlighting, underlining, searching, and cross-referencing.

The concepts of skimming and scanning must be adapted to the new medium to be effective, for example, by using hypertext outlines to give an overview of texts.

"Whereas a concern for usability argues for more learner control, concerns for pedagogy argue for less learner control. Good design is thus a search for the right balance ..." (pp. 532-33).

The system developed in this study attempts to find a balance for these two competeing demands by providing both teacher-centered tutorial zones and user-centered experiential environments.

The authors argue for a constructivist educational model as the foundation of computer learning systems. Such a model is identified with a heuristic approach to learning, that is the process of learning by discovery.

In terms of design, a user-centered, context specific process of development is promoted. Formative workshops utilizing senarios of use are the key elements of the method applied in this study.

The study reported here found that users (especially technologically proficient users) preferred a "high control prototype" which allowed users to freely navigate the system and access the multi-media elements of the system.

If you would like to share your knowledge of other literature highly pertinent to the discussion of materials design, development and publication or to computer assisted language learning, or if you would like further information on this project or any of the readings commented on above, please feel free to contact me at xobol@hotmail.com