Judaism: Unity and Diversity

Evidence of diversity in ancient times. For example, The "Rechabites" - or "wilderness tradition", upheld the pristine purity of the Mosaic tradition, and the Nazarites (Samson, Samuel) - uncut hair, few possessions or clothes, opposed the tendency towards external obedience and ceremony without inner piety. The "anti-Temple" tradition that supported the ancient "high holy places" and opposed the centralization of worship, under the King's control, in Jerusalem.

PHARISEES (influenced by Geek thought developed the Oral Law, applying logic and rational reasoning, to re-interpret the Written Law, believed in Resurrection of the Dead, etc), SADUCEEES (associated with the Temple, accepted only the Written Law, opposed Greek influence, ZEALOTS, QUMRAN COMMUNITY, etc.

SURVIVAL POST 70 CE - was considerably aided by the Pharisaic tradition whose focus on Law could continue to flourish without the Temple - Synagogues (places of study) developed as foci for scholarship.

DIVERSITY IN DIASPORA. Jews scattered throughout the then known world. Communication was difficult and many lived in comparative isolation - hence diversity is hardly surprising although after the Talmud was written down (Babylonian, 500, Jerusalem, 400) this helped to give stability and cohesion. Survival networks enabled communication and scholarly interchange of a remarkable scale.

Islamic World: Jews here were more homogenous as they existed as a protected minority under Islamic rule with a single head, the Babylonian Exilarch, who presided over a Council of scholars. The Exilarch has been thus described:

Sephardim are Jews who settled in Spain in the late Roman period. In the ninth/tenth centuries under Islam Jewish culture blossomed there. Thereafter, attitudes changed and the Sephardim migrated (or were exiled) to other parts of the Muslim world (especially Egypt, Turkey, Palestine), some to Europe.

The Ashkenazim are Jews who settled in Europe (e.g. Germany, Poland, Russia). These communities were more subject to persecution than the Sephardim were. This may have resulted in greater introspection.

Differences: fairly minimal; some liturgical differences, customs surrounding certain festivals, cantilation, hymnody etc. Israel has a Chief Rabbi for both communities. These are called ORTHODOX (term used by the "Progressives" to describe those from whom they considered "traditionalist". In Diaspora, Jews lacked civil liberties and rights and were often compelled to live in designated areas, to wear distinctive dress, certain professions were closed to them and their freedom of movement was restricted. However, the Rabbis (those who know the Torah are qualified to rule) governed their internal affairs. This paragraph from Leon Uris' bestselling novel, Exodus (1958, Doubleday) describes how the ghettoes were governed

The hope of return to Jerusalem and the sense of being a nation sustained Jews despite pogroms, enforced migrations, murder and unremitting persecution. Meanwhile, the idea of working for the welfare and peace of the cities where they were exiled (Jeremiah 29) remained a motivating ideal. The Jew's task, says Elie Wisel, was never to make the world more Jewish, only more human (A Jew Today,1978, Vintage p 16). His haunting question of the Holocaust was not 'Where was God?' but, 'Where was man in all this, and Culture, how did it reach this nadir?' (ibid p 12).

THE MYSTICAL TRADITION (Kabbala and Chasidim)

Mystical thought is ancient but did not produce significant literature until the European Middle Ages. Its theosophical doctrines deal with ultimate mystery of creation, universe, God.

Sefer ha-Zohar published in Spain in tenth century. Full of symbol, allegory, and use of numbers.

Influenced eighteenth century CHASIDIC movement: (Israel Baal Sem Tov, 1700-60) pietist, emphasizes inner spirituality not external ritual (purity of heart is better than study).

Also uses song, dance (worship of whole body) to "cling to God in joy" (devekut). Makes Judaism profoundly real (god immanent in all creation) to those for whom the scholarly tradition is beyond reach.

The role of the REBBE (charismatic leader but also often hereditary) is elevated over that of the traditional Rabbi Rebbe serve as intermediaries between their flock, and God, a "quasi-sacramental role".... "By comparison, the salaried rabbi was a more distant, legalistic figure" (Goldberg & Reynor, The Jewish People, Penguin, 1987 p 130).

Some Chasidic groups want to preserve the Jewish culture of the period in which they developed to the exclusion of modern culture, dress, technology, etc. The term ULTRA-ORTHODOX sometimes used. Some do not "recognize " Israel because it is a secular state. See Chaim Potok's The Chosen for a portrayal of an Chasidic group. Potok also describes how the Torah and Talmud are studied, interpreted and applied in Jewish life (1967, NY: Ballantine Books).

MODERN MOVEMENTS for which PROGRESSIVE JUDAISM is often used as an umbrella term.

Background: emancipation following French revolution, etc. encouraged the haskalah (Jewish enlightenment):

"Jewish history since 1789 has been A response to modernity and to the opportunities, pain and dilemmas of confronting society beyond the ghetto walls" (G & R: 1987: 137).

•Jews now full citizens able to participate in public life

•Jews no longer confined to the Ghetto/required

to wear distinctive dress (but revived in Nazi Germany)

•Jews' internal affairs no longer governed by own law

This made "assimilation" possible. Reform Judaism aimed at making it easier for Jews to practice their religion whilst also operating fully within the life of wider community - by: Saw Judaism as a religion or as a denomination, de-emphasized national (return to Jerusalem) aspect.

Simplified Sabbath observance and other practices (e.g. Reform Jews will drive to

Synagogue whilst most Orthodox will walk; they will turn lights on, Orthodox will not

•Vernacular hymns, choirs, organs, shorter

liturgies using local language as well as Hebrew

•Women sit in body of synagogue, and are

ordained as Rabbis.

• Torah not given at Sinai but evolved as record of human-divine relationship. Historical criticism accepted.

• Confirmation may be used for boys and girls, or bar-mitzvah for the latter

• Conversion; process simpler; some groups recognize patrimonial descent.

HISTORICAL NOTE: Began in Germany. David Friedlander (1756-1834) described by Idisore Epstein as "the real originator of the Reform Movement" ( Judaism,Penguin, 1959: 291) Famous Hamburg Temple built in 1817.

• 1894 Dreyfus Affair/Protocols of Zion. Dreyfus, a Jewish Captain in the French army, found guilty of selling secrets to the Germans. Evidence later proved to be a forgery. Austrian journalist, Theodor Herzl (1869 - 1904) in audience became convinced that assimilation would not prevent Jews from victimization. Advocated founding a Jewish state and founded World Zionist Organization. Zionists criticized progressive Jews for abandoning national identity. Zionists propounded a new, muscular, hero image of the Jew. Many migrated to Palestine, a British mandate 1918 - 1947. From Talmudic times, Jews have advocated pacifism - thus the Zionists militancy was anathema to some Jews.

• Zionist cause gained wider support after WW11. State of Israel

voted into existence by United Nations November 1947. Millions of Jews have 'returned'. Those that stay in Diaspora feel 'safer' because Jews now have their own safeplace. Clive Lawton, a former Head Teacher and now Director of Jewish Continuity, UK, once said to me that in Britain he feels like a guest in somebody's house when they say 'make yourself at home' yet you keep your dressing gown on when you visit the restroom at night. In Israel, he can leave it off.

• First Reform synagogue in Britain built in 1840

(as non-aligned). In the USA (Reform) Union of

American Hebrew Congregations founded in 1873.

• Liberal Judaism emerged out of Reform in Germany

spreading to Britain in 1902 (Jewish Religious Unity)

- original more radical than Reform but now "the

initial distinction ... has diminished" (A Multi faith Directory,edited by Paul Weller, University of Derby, 1993p

326).

* CONSERVATIVE movement emerged in USA (is said to stand "midway between Orthodoxy and Reform" (Epstein :296) e.g. liturgy closer to Orthodox although men and women may sit together, (they have women Rabbis) "adopts positive attitude to Jewish national aspirations" (p 297). MOST AMERICAN JEWS ARE CONSERVATIVE.

•RE-CONSTRUCTIONIST founded by Mordecai Kaplan (1881-1983) interprets "Judaism" as religious-cultural civilization, which has evolved over the millennia, rejecting"revelation". Practice quite traditional but belief humanistic. Democratic constitution.

• Also Humanistic Judaism - some 30,000 members emerged from the Birmingham Temple in Detroit - "Judaism should be governed by empirical reasonand human needs" (Braybrooke, M How to Understand Judaism SCM, 1995: 75).

An attempt to sum up:

• Jews share a common history

• A profound sense of peoplehood

• An ethical outlook i.e. humans have ethical

responsibilities to help to repair the world (tikkun olam)

• MOST share the belief that one-day the Kingdom will come, and operate in the

lives of all people.

But - regard Torah differently, have different views on"Restoration"; do not have identical answers to the question WHO IS JEWISH.?

Unterman says "The history of controversy and mutual antagonism is too strongly rooted,

and the divergence in theology and practice too great, for the gap [between Orthodoxy and Reform to be closed" (Jews: Their religious Beliefs and Practices, Routledge, 1981:224).

©2000 Clinton Bennett