This essay is free for distribution in any manner, with the
provision that it remains completely intact, with this notice,
the author's name and the full text of the essay.  Any
comments are gratefully welcomed.  Copyright 1996.


INTRODUCTION

      To state that the Book of Revelation is an
apocalypse is to be, strictly, tautologous, for
"Revelation" is from the Greek word "apocalypsis" which
means "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously
known and which could not be known apart from the
unveiling" (Goswiller, n.d., p. 3).

      However, "apocalypse" also refers to a particular
genre of Judaistic writing with similar literary and
eschatological characteristics.  These were mainly
written between the time of the oppression of the Jews
under Antiochus Epiphanes in 167 B.C. to the revolt of
Bar Kokhba in 135 A.D. (Wilson, n.d., p. 11).

      The apocalyptic genre includes such books as the
Assumption of Moses, 1 Enoch (or The Book of Enoch), 4
Ezra (or 2 Esdras in the Apocrypha), the Sibylline
Oracles, the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, the
Psalter of Solomon, the Book of Jubilees (or The Little
Genesis) and The Apocalypse of Baruch (Beasley-Murray,
1978, p. 15; Edersheim, 1993, p. 26; Stern, 1992, p.
785).

      J.G. Collins defines an apocalypse as

    a genre of revelatory literature with a narrative
    framework, in which a revelation is mediated by an
    otherworldly being to a human recipient, disclosing a
    transcendent reality, which is both temporal, insofar
    as it envisages eschatological salvation, and
    spatial, insofar as it involves another, supernatural
    world (Bauckham, 1993, p. 6).

      Such otherworldly mediation may be seen in
apocalyptic passages such as 4 Ezra 3-10 and 2 Baruch 10-
30.  It is also evidenced in Revelation when one of the
elders explains the great multitude in white robes
(Revelation 7:13-17) and when one of the seven angels
explains the meaning of the waters where the prostitute
sits (Revelation 17:15-18), among other passages.

      Collins' definition must be qualified, however.
Bauckham (1993, p. 6) notes that apocalypses cover a wide
range of topics - generally history and eschatology, but
this is not necessarily true of all of them.  Wilson
(n.d., p. 5) also makes the important comment that "the
ancient purpose of apocalyptic writing was to stimulate
the people at times of national distress by the assurance
that God's Deliverer would be raised up" - the
apocalyptic motif is that of judgment followed by triumph
and glory (Mickelsen, 1963, p. 303).

      Apocalypses were usually written at a time of
crisis and danger; their main purpose being to strengthen
the believer (Glasson, 1965, p. 2).  Accordingly, as
Fiorenza states, "Revelation reflects a politico-
religious conflict with the Roman empire and a
persecution of the church in Asia Minor under Domitian."


THE RISE OF JEWISH APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

      The central core of apocalyptic belief is a
transcendent eschatology whereby the future is envisaged
in terms of direct divine intervention - a universal
judgment of the nations and a new age of salvation, in
which the cosmos will be radically transformed (Bauckham,
1980, p. 73).  The method of apocalypse is to boldly
outline by symbolic pictures those things which should be
recognised as dangers, and the ways in which divine
intervention was to be expected (Wilson, n.d., p. 5),
expressing the idea that this world offers no hope for
improvement, but history will end with a cosmic
catastrophe at which time the apparently victorious
wicked will be punished and the downtrodden righteous
rewarded (Stern, 1992, p. 785).

      It was after the perceived cessation of prophecy,
that is, after Malachi, that the apocalyptic genre
flourished.  Because of the cessation of prophecy it was
thought necessary to explain the sufferings of God's
people and the delay of God's kingdom (Wilson, n.d., p.
11), in the context of the post-exilic experience of
history, in which Israel remained under the domination of
the Gentile powers and the prophetic promises of glorious
restoration remained largely unfulfilled.  Bauckham
(1980, p. 74) elaborates,

    In the extended period of contradiction between God's
    promises and the reality of Israel's historical
    experience, the apocalyptists sought to assure the
    faithful that God had not abandoned his people, that
    the promised salvation was coming.  To this end they
    stressed the divine sovereignty over history: God has
    predetermined the whole course of world history and
    the End will come at the time he has appointed.

      The first apocalypse is considered to be the Book
of Daniel (Caird, 1966, p. 9), the style of which was
imitated in a succession of works (Beasley-Murray, 1978,
p. 14; Edersheim, 1993, p. 26).  Not all of these were
particularly successful - Caird (1966, p. 10) labels 1
Enoch as one of the world's six worst books, and blames 4
Ezra (2 Esdras in the Apocrypha) for many of the most
deplorable features of mediaeval theology.

      The first great flowering of apocalyptic literature
was in the mid-2nd-century B.C. crisis of Jewish faith
under Antiochus Epiphanes when the apocalyptic was the
literary vehicle of the Hasidic movement, which stood for
national repentance, uncompromising opposition to
hellenisation and eschatological faith in God's imminent
intervention on behalf of His people (Bauckham, 1980, p.
73).  In some sense, the apocalyptic may be called the
"heir of prophecy" (Bauckham, 1980, p. 74; Beasley-
Murray, 1978, p. 14).  The apocalyptic writings are
described as intended for "the wise among the people",
embodying the ardent aspirations and the inmost hopes of
those who longed for the "consolation of Israel", as they
understood it (Edersheim, 1993, p. 26).

      The apocalyptic genre flourished especially in
times of national crisis, and are considered by George
Eldon Ladd to be "Tracts for bad times" (Wilson, n.d., p.
11).  The last great Jewish eschatological apocalypses
come from the period between the fall of Jerusalem in 70
A.D. and the failure of Bar Kokhba's revolt (Bauckham,
1980, p. 73).  Their exclusion from the Canon is not a
negative judgment on their value for intertestamental
development of Jewish religion.  On the contrary, "by
sustaining and intensifying the eschatological hope they
played a decisively important role as a bridge between
the Testaments" (Bauckham, 1980, p. 74).

      Finally, it must be noted that although apocalypses
presented a strongly deterministic view of history, this
did not become a fatalism which contradicts human freedom
and responsibility.  The apocalyptists also called their
readers to repentance, intercession and ethical action
(Bauckham, 1980, p. 74).


COMMON FEATURES OF APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE

      It is characteristic of apocalyptic writings that
they portray the present crisis, whether it be the
persecution of Antiochus or the fall of Jerusalem,
against a background of world history, the present
struggle between the kingdom of light and the kingdom of
darkness, and victory over the immediate enemy as the
embodiment of the final victory of God (Caird, 1966, p.
9).

      In particular, the apocalyptic works bore false
names of authorship - such as those attributed to Moses,
Abraham, Ezra, Enoch and Baruch (Edersheim, 1993, p. 26)
- although this was not intended as a fraudulent device
to deceive.  Rather, the writer sought to identify with
central figures of Judaism (Daley, 1991, p. 5), even
acting as interpreters of Old Testament prophecy,
assuming the authority of the figure.  This then
necessitated writing from a viewpoint in the past and
fictionally "predicting" the history which had already
taken place (Stern, 1992, p. 785).  The apocalyptic work
then sought to communicate a disclosure of a transcendent
perspective on this world - usually this was achieved by
a seer being taken in vision to God's throne room in
heaven to learn the secrets of the divine purpose.  This
is the case in 1 Enoch 14-16; 46; 60:1-6; 71; 2 Enoch 20;
and The Apocalypse of Abraham 9-18, as well as the Book
of Revelation 4, when John is told to "Come up here"
through the open door in heaven.

      Such visionary transportation to heaven, visions of
God's throne room, angelic mediators of revelation,
symbolic visions of political powers, and coming judgment
and new creation all served to reveal the world in the
perspective of the transcendent divine purpose, and all
these features may be seen in the Book of Revelation.

      As a potential extension to the apocalyptists'
pseudonymity was the fact that the apocalyptists would
often make use of existing materials, continually feeding
on Old Testament sources, both prophetic and apocalyptic
(Bauckham, 1980, p. 74; Beasley-Murray, 1978, p. 18)
which serve as vehicles for the writers message.
Similarly, the Book of Revelation is remarkably full of
Old Testament imagery and allusions to Old Testament
sources.  The seven and three and a half year periods
relate to Daniel, as do the various images of world
empires.  The glory of God and the Temple relate to
Ezekiel.  Even the candlesticks from Revelation chapter 1
pertain to the Jewish menorah.

      Some apocalypses were known as cosmological
apocalyptic, which sought to reveal the mysteries of the
cosmos.  In 1 Enoch 6-36, Enoch is taken by angels on
journeys through the heavens and the realms of the dead
(Bauckham, 1980, p. 74), and he relates what he saw and
heard.  It is from this book that Jude quotes when he
states, "See, the Lord is coming with thousands upon
thousands of his holy ones to judge everyone, and to
convict all the ungodly of all the ungodly acts they have
done in the ungodly way, and of all the harsh words
ungodly sinners have spoken against him" (Jude 14-15).

      Overall, however, a particular question which the
apocalyptists sought to answer was "Who is Lord over the
world?"  As has been stated, Jewish apocalypses were
usually concerned with the apparent non-fulfillment of
God's promises in the context of the righteous suffering
while the wicked flourish - the world appears to be ruled
not by God, but by evil.  With this situation before
them, the apocalyptists sought to maintain the faith of
God's people in face of the harsh realities of present
evil, especially political oppression by pagan empires
(Bauckham, 1993, p. 8).  Nevertheless, God rules creation
and the time is coming when He will overthrow evil and
establish His kingdom.

      This may be seen in the apocalypse of Baruch where
descriptions of the last days are given, and of the reign
and judgment of the Messiah (Edersheim, 1993, p. 928).
In the Book of Revelation, John writes to a people under
Roman domination, even exiled from their own country.
Yet, one cannot fail to discern the spiritual realities
behind the seemingly natural calamities.  There is war in
the heavenlies (Revelation 12:7).  The dragon of old,
Satan, is the force behind the wickedness embodied in the
form of the Beast (Revelation 13:4) who blasphemes God
and makes war against the saints (Revelation 13:6-7).
Yet, at the time appointed by God, John sees heaven
standing open and there appears a white horse - the rider
being the Faithful and True - none other than Jesus
Christ, and with justice he judges and makes war
(Revelation 19:11).  The armies of heaven are behind Him
and He strikes down the nations (Revelation 19:14-15).
Judgment is enacted and Christ's reign is established
(Revelation 20).

      It is a characteristic of the apocalyptists to
portray the coming eschatological salvation as a new
creation, in which all forms of evil and suffering will
be eliminated.  Even death will be conquered.  The
eschatological age will be the kingdom of God, replacing
all earthly empires for ever.  The oppressors of Israel
will be condemned (Bauckham, 1980, p. 74) and Israel will
be restored in a transformed material world (Daley, 1991,
p. 5).  Again, this may be seen in the Book of Revelation
where God declares all things are made new - the dwelling
of God will be with men, and He will live with them.
There will be no more death or mourning or crying or
pain, indeed, there is even a new heavens and a new earth
(Revelation 21:3-5) and death and Hades are made to
divulge their contents before being themselves cast into
the Lake of Fire (Revelation 20:11-15).


UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE BOOK OF REVELATION

      The Book of Revelation is no "mere" apocalypse, for
it is the apocalypse of Jesus Christ - the faithful
witness (Revelation 1:5).  John was conscious of being a
prophet of the Lord (Beasley-Murray, 1978, p. 14) and
rather than write psuedonymously in the name of a long
dead hero, he used his own name (Revelation 1:4).

      He did not simply rewrite history as pseudo-
prophecy either (Beasley-Murray, 1978, p. 18; Wilson,
n.d., p. 12), rather he stood in his own time and looked
forward to God's future consummation of his redemptive
purpose.  He did not despair of history but saw it as the
scene of redemption and the Lamb of God as the only one
who could solve the problems.  Whereas Jewish apocalypses
were entirely pessimistic about the past and present,
John looked to the past work of Christ as the ground for
present hope (Stern, 1992, p. 785).

      Bauckham (1980, p. 75) sees that the essential
difference is that the purely future orientation of
Jewish apocalyptic is modified in the Book of Revelation
by the conviction that eschatological fulfillment has
already begun in the historical event of Jesus Christ.
Christians live between the "already" and the "not yet".
In this way the apocalyptic tendency to a negative
evaluation of present history is superseded by the
conviction that God's redemptive purpose is already at
work within the history of this age.


CONCLUSION

      The first readers of the Book of Revelation
undoubtedly found that

    The bounds which Roman power and ideology set to the
    readers world are broken open, and that world is seen
    as open to the greater purpose of its transcendent
    creator and Lord (Bauckham, 1993, p. 7).

      In this same way, the readers of an apocalypse were
taken to see a new world - yet, it was their world, but
not from their perspective.  The apocalyptic genre
countered false views of reality by attempting to open
the world to divine transcendence.


WORKS CITED

Bauckham, R. 1980. 'Apocalyptic', in The Illustrated
     Bible Dictionary, ed. F. F. Bruce, Inter-Varsity
     Press.

________. 1993. The Theology of the Book of
     Revelation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Beasley-Murray, G. R. 1978. The New Century Bible
     Commentary: Revelation, rev. ed., Wm. B. Eerdmans
     Publishing Company, Michigan.

Caird, G. B. 1966. A Commentary on the Revelation of St.
     John the Divine, Adam and Charles Black, London.

Daley, B. 1991. The Hope of the Early Church: A Handbook
     of Patristic Eschatology, Cambridge University
     Press, Cambridge.

Edersheim, A. 1993. The Life and Times of Jesus The
     Messiah, Hendrickson Publishers, Massachusetts.

Fiorenza, E. S. 1985. The Book of Revelation: Justice and
     Judgment, Fortress Press, Philadelphia.

Glasson, T. F. 1965. The Revelation of John, Cambridge
     University Press, Cambridge.

Goswiller, R. n.d. Revelation, Pacific Study Series,
     Melbourne.

Mickelsen, A. B. 1963. Interpreting the Bible, Wm. B.
     Eerdmans Publishing Company, Michigan.

Stern, D. 1992. Jewish New Testament Commentary, Jewish
     New Testament Publications, Inc., Maryland.

Wilson, C. n.d. The Book of Revelation, Pacific College
     Study Series, Melbourne.

davidmwilliams@oocities.com