CAUSATIVES
IN PROTO-DREM:
The three always precede the VERB or VERB PHRASE
which is unlike the way verbal extensions are always to the right of the verb
root. When tenses of modals are taken into the issue, the tenses and modals
always are directly attached to the right of the verb root, which makes the
CAUS to the right of the tense/mood markers and so in essence make the
causatives an auxiliary verb.
Causatives are separated into three areas. The
causatives are the standard make/create, let/have, and give styles that are
seen in many languages. The four generally all use a common bV, and thru studies, the Proto-West causative was
most likely *ba- that changed thru vowel harmony over
time. One thing that is interesting is how the causatives of intension rounded
to /o/, and the non-intension causatives fronted to /e/.
Also note that unlike a lot of languages, in
Proto-Drem there is no distinction between Active and Passive causation, so in
essence, the causatives in Proto-Drem are all SUB-VERB-CAUS-OBJ, which is an
active form of causation. Thus, one won’t see a SUB+OBJ+VERB+CAUS which is the
Passive variant.
‘To make/create’ direct/indirect
causation for objects:
SUBJECT+ VERB + bò (to
make, do)
SUBJECT + VERB PHRASE+ mbòwə
(to disappear)
XXX
1PS+To disappear+To lose+scroll
I’ve lost the scroll
SUBJECT
(human/non-human)+VERB PHRASE+mbòwə+OBJECT:
The mbòwə of ‘to
make disappear’ has wide connotations like…”I dropped the cup”
Common usages:
To fall = to drop something
To be broken = to break something
To be dirty = to make something dirty
To be spoiled = to spoil something
To fall = to make something fall off
To slip loose = to let something slip
To spill = to spill something
To break off = to make something break off
XXX
1P+CAUS+to fall+spear
I dropped the spear
XXX
2P+CAUS+to fall+spear
You made the spear fall off *note is the same as
“You dropped the appear”
SUBJECT
(human/non-human) + VERB PHRASE + bo
+ OBJECT:
This is for clear intent, coercion and
purposeful cause. Since bo- is so ‘straight forward,
this is the one usually used compared to the more subtle mbòwə-
XXX
To fish+CNVA+happy+CAUS+2PS
Fishing makes her happy.
‘To let/have’ direct/indirect causation
for objects:
SUBJECT + VP + nèbè
(to let, have) + j’a (to, for) + DO:
This is the second style of causatives, which
normally deal with allowing something to happen, and depending on what the
action verb is, the action can be any number of
things. Note that like ‘give’ causative below, the marker –j’a-
is also dropped in nearly all instances since an implied benefaction is seen
and so only in archaic formal speech is the marker used. Note that the “let’
causatives are divided between human and animal/spirit. A few scholars
speculate that that is a fossilized gender form, or maybe even a form of
Animacy that is long forgotten.
SUBJECT
(human) + VERB PHRASE
+ nèbè + OBJECT:
The causative to use here is nèbè
Common usages:
Let/have + see = to show
Let/have + happen = to cause, create
Let/have + rent = to let
Let/have + borrow = to lend
XXX
2P+CAUS+To See+2P
Show him/let him see
XXX
NEG+1P+CAUS+borrow+spear+Poss
I don’t let the children borrow my spear
SUBJECT
(animal/spirit) + VERB PHRASE + nèbə + OBJECT:
The causative to use here is nèbè
Common usages:
Let/have + see = to show
Let/have + happen = to cause, create
Let/have + rent = to let
Let/have + borrow = to lend
XXX
2P+CAUS+To See+2P
Show him/let him see
XXX
NEG+1P+CAUS+borrow+spear+Poss
I don’t let the children borrow my spear
‘To Give’ direct/indirect causation for
objects:
SUBJECT + gbare(to give) + DO + j’a(to, for) +
IDO.
The marker -j’a- is
frequently dropped in these sentences, but other times for clarity, it is kept.
It is generally dropped since the root has an implied benefactive
attached, so that it is assumed that the action is being done to/for somebody.
SUBJECT
+ Verb Phrase + gbare + Direct OBJ + j’a(to,
for) + indirect OBJ:
Common usages:
Give + food = to feed
Give + dead = to kill
Give + fear = to frighten
Give + go = to let X go (for their sake)
XXX
2PS+To give+food+animal+yet
Have you fed the animal yet?
as a quantifier. The quantifier always follows the IDO.
XXX
1PS+To give+spear+3PS+3
I gave him three spears
If the DO is qualified by a relative clause, then the qualifier
always follows the DO
XXX
1PS+To give+spear+2PS
which+1PS+To like
I gave him the spears which I like.
The IDO (me) in ‘He taught me fishing’ shows a
structure VERB + DO + XXX + IDO.
XXX
3PS+To teach+to fish+CNVA+1PS
He taught me fishing.
XXX
3PP+To bring+To walk+branch+POSS+1PS
They brought me my staff
Specifying Verbs in Causation:
The causative can be preceded by another verb,
in this case, acting as an auxiliary verb. The verb is called a specifying
verb. The structure for this is… SUBJECT (human)+SPECIFYING
VERB+CAUS+VERB PHRASE+OBJECT. This is used since the specifying verb shows the
method of the causation, and the rest of the sentence acts just like a normal
causative. Most times, the specifying verb will require a tense affix to
clarify the timeline of the specifying verb. Thus, the tense clears up
ambiguity more so than if it wasn’t there.
Common
specifying verbs:
To tell:
XXX
2PS+TAM+To Tell+To give+food+animal+yet
Have you been told to feed the animal yet?
To request:
XXX
1PS+TAM+To request+To
give+spear+3PS+3
I requested that I give him three spears
To allow:
XXX
3PS+TAM+To allow+To teach+to fish+CNVA+1PS
He was allowed to teach me fishing.
To order:
XXX
1PS+TAM+To order+To
give+spear+3PS+3
I was ordered that I give him three spears
To want to:
XXX
2PS+To want+To give+food+animal+yet
Do you want to feed the animal yet?
To warn:
XXX
3PP+TAM+To warn+To bring+To
walk+branch+POSS+1PS
They
were warned to bring me my staff
CONJUNCTIONS IN PROTO-DREM:
There are a good number
of conjunctions in Proto-Drem, as clauses usually require some form of a
linking word to connect and tie together the two clauses. In Proto-Drem, these
words do their job where each one below have the usual shades of meaning as
some seem to overlap slightly, while with others, it is clear of the
distinction.
The main aspect to these
words is that there are two placements for them. First is in between two
clauses that are t be linked. The second form is as a sentence initial word
with reference to both clauses.
The two groups of words
dealt with here deal with their own distinctions. The first are called temporal
conjunctions, in which they deal exclusively a temporal aspect (before, until,
then, etc ...) so that the speaker will
be clearly understood. The second group
is known as non-temporal conjunctions (and, but, because, etc…) that are just
like regular conjunctions commonly seen in most languages of the world.
Both forms of
conjunctions are strangely outside of all vowel harmony constraints and so therefore
they do not worry about any VH rules of spread of vowel change. These words are
also known to block all VH that would spread in either direction from the
subject or verb.
TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS IN PROTO-DREM:
CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION +
CLAUSE
CONJUNCTION + CLAUSE
XXX: after
Always used with an implied non-past tense, as the following clause is
usually an implied perfective aspect, yet still in the non-past. This particle
is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He returned home after
finishing work.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: till,
until
Used in very similar ways as the particle above. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He will remain here
till tomorrow.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: before
Always used with an implied injunctive aspect. This particle is very
common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Close the door before
leaving.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
+ MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: then,
and then
Always used as a sequential event, as the first clause is one event, and
the following clause is the next event. This style is also seen thru serial
verbs without the “extra information”, and so both this and a serial verb is used commonly with serial verbs. This particle is very
common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Go to the market, buy
vegetables, then come back here.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: from,
since
Always used with an implied non-past injunctive style. This particle is
very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He will stay at the
hotel from today till the day after tomorrow.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
NON-TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS IN
PROTO-DREM:
CLAUSE + CONJUNCTION +
CLAUSE
CONJUNCTION + CLAUSE
Ŋú: Or,
nor
This particle always
usually shows up as alternatives to a ‘this or that’ style of sentence. Thus,
it usually leads to a decision. The second example is very colloquial and
considered bad grammar, but the young are using this form more often. Which is
a considered a choice, but not really a choice at all. In fact the example is
more like an Imperative (command).
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Yes or no?
Imperative usage:
CONJ + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
To choose+DEMPRO
CONJ DEMPRO
choose either this or that.
XXX
CONJ MODAL+[to be/is] quiet+2PS
Or, you could just be
quiet.
XXX: either…or
This is always used with the person a choice. Depending on how the
sentence is used, it can have a positive or negative connotation. This particle
is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Either it's you, or
it's your brother.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: instead
of
Always used with an implied injunctive fee as the speaker is “advising”
the person on another choice to be considered. This particle is very common in
all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He went to the lake
instead of going (back) to the village.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: but
rather, on the contrary
Always used as an implied injunctive, much like the above example . This particle is very common in all sorts of
sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Speaking Proto-Drem is
not difficult; on the contrary it's very easy.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: then, well, so, that's all
An interesting word that can be used in several
ways. This particle is very common in all sorts of
sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
I really wanted to see
animals, so I came here.
XXX
XXX
Is that all ? - Yes.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: without
Always used with an implied imperfective feel since an
task was not completed. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences
as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
The child arrived
without his arrows.
XXX
XXX
He went to lake without bringing his
crab traps.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: even if
Used as an implied negation to the clause being discussed. This particle
is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
I won't agree even if I
die
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Even if I die, I won't agree.
XXX: except
Used with an implied negative with a situation or task. This particle is very
common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
those females are hard
working, except this one.
XXX
XXX
everybody arrived, except the shaman.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
+ MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: so as, so that, in order to
Used kind of like a serial verb construction, since there are generally
two events, the second being the result of the first being completed. This particle
is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
I go to the harbor so
as to buy fish.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: although, even though
Used in various ways, some subtle, others not so. In some way the
particle increases negativity, while in others, it helps to expand on the
clauses intent. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen
below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
She has come for food, even though her
mate is out hunting.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: moreover, besides, again
Always used with giving additional information and emphasizing the first
clause. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Food is scarce,
moreover it is too expensive.
XXX
XXX
He / she haven’t got his / her
ticket, besides he / she have no money.
XXX
XXX
I don't know this child; moreover I
have never seen him.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: around, like
Always used in a way that is not certain, where the
speaker is unsure of the outcome or result. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
How long will you stay?
- Around three months.
XXX
XXX
He said it was like that.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: as if
Seemingly like the above conjunction. Also shows an inherent amount
uncertainty in that is uses the second clause to add information about the
first clause. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen
below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He played with the
animals as if they were kids.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: to, in order to
Always used with giving additional information. This particle is very
common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He has built a big
house to fit his large family.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: for, to, by, with
Always used as a benefactive aspect. Used in
the same ways and with the same intent as the normal benefactive.
This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
He hunts for the clan.
XXX
XXX
Cut the hide with a knife.
XXX
XXX
we came here by foot.
XXX
XXX
I will eat nuts with the sauce.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: because of
Always used with giving additional information in a negative way. Used to
explain why an event or task didn’t happen. This particle is very common in all
sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Because of the rain, we
didn't come.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
sè: Because,
due to, for that reason, since, whereas, considering, so, because of that, in consequence
Sè is used for a
consideration, giving examples, information, showing a change, used for
excuses. Using an example from spoken English, this conjunction can also be used
at the beginning of a sentence. It would be known that the initial clause would
be the subordinate clause with the main clause following.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Causative usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
2PS+mate+POSS
CONJ 1PS DEG+To love+2PS
You’re
my mate because I love you very much.
XXX
CONJ To talk+NAME+NAME CONJ NAME
Because I talked to Od, Nod
and God…
XXX
CONJ 3 CONJ 7+equals+10
since 3 + 7 = 10 …
XXX: that
Always used with giving additional information, always used in math when
adding up a sum. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen
below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
I see that this animal is
savage.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
Ŋgì: but,
except, on the contrary, however
An unusual one that shows a tie in to negative and question clauses.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
Untypical usage:
CONJ + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
MODAL+To choose+1PP+DEMPRO
CONJ MODAL+To choose+1PP+DEMPRO
we could choose this but we should choose that
XXX
CONJ 2PS+To stink+still
But you still stink!
XXX: And,
in addition to, as well as, along with,
together with, and so forth
Always used with giving additional information on top of the first
clause. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
Bring the meat and berries and
different herbs.
XXX
XXX
My friend has arrived with his children.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: either, neither
Always used with giving additional information, used in a subtle negative
tone. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
There are no berries and no herbs
either.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: neither ... nor
Always used with giving additional information, used as an implied
negative. This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
I didn't see them, neither him nor
his brothers.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX: i.e., that is to say
Always used with emphasizing the first clause and explaining it to be clearer.
This particle is very common in all sorts of sentences as seen below.
Typical usage:
MAIN CLAUSE + CONJ +
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
This is indeed an outsider word,
that is, from the far side of the mountains.
Untypical usage:
CONJ + SUBORDINATE
CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE
XXX
XXX
XXX
VERBS OF
UTTERANCE, MENTAL
ACTIVITY, PERCEPTION:
In
Proto-Drem, since most sentences are fairly simple, in more formal speech, when
sentences can get fairly complex, clarity and preciseness is almost a necessity.
With these rarely used verbs, the usage assumes that the 1PS is the subject and
nearly all the time, it is dropped from usage. The structure is simple: VERB + mbi + Subordinate clause. They correspond to the English
‘that’ (say that, know that, think that). Note, that this affix deals with
nothing like the Demonstrative Pronoun ‘that’ does.
Verbs of
utterance = say, whisper, call
Verbs of
mental activity = think, remember, hope
Verbs of
Perception = see, understand, know
XXX
Think+VA 1PS+To come+tomorrow
I
think (that) I’ll return tomorrow
XXX
Hope+VA NEG+3P+spicy+DEG
I
hope (that) it’s not too spicy
Some of the most common verbs used
with these:
To say/tell XXX
To remember XXX
To believe XXX
To hear XXX
To see/look XXX
To be afraid XXX
To
understand XXX
To think XXX
To be
certain XXX
To be
concerned/worried XXX
To
say/speak XXX
To know
(facts) [informal] XXX
To feel XXX
To know
(facts) [formal] XXX
To suspect XXX
To hope XXX
INTERJECTIONS IN
PROTO-DREM:
An interjection
expresses an emotion. It might show excitement or surprise. An interjection
often appears at the beginning of a sentence. They have no real grammatical
value but we use them quite often, usually more in speaking than in writing.
When interjections are inserted into a sentence, they have no grammatical
connection to the sentence. It is usually followed by an exclamation point or a
comma.
Hi! That's an interjection. :-)
Here are the interjections with
examples:
|
Interjection |
meaning |
example |
|
Shíwə! |
Expressing pleasure |
Ah, that feels good |
|
Lòsə |
Expressing disgust to an object, person |
You’re useless! Disgusting! |
|
Jègi! |
Expressing attention |
Hey! |
|
Expressing surprise, joy |
Hey, I’ve won! |
|
|
Gòzə |
Expressing surprise, slight confusion |
Eh? Really? |
|
Jozu! |
Expressing realization |
Ah! I get it now! |
|
Libê |
Expressing resignation |
Ah well. |
|
Shàŋə |
Expressing pleading |
Please say ‘yes’! |
|
Damù? |
Introducing a remark |
Well? |
|
Jefù |
Expressing enquiry |
Look at that Eh? |
|
Rèlə |
Expressing hesitation, doubt, disagreement |
Hmmm, I’m not so sure |
|
Rәd |
Expressing grief or pity |
Oh dear, are you ok? |
|
Jébə |
Expressing agreement |
Uh-Huh |
|
Negù |
Expressing sarcasm |
Mmmmm… |
|
Labù! |
Expressing Pain, used as a curse word |
Ouch! That hurt! Damn! |
Interjection usage
Structure CLAUSE INTJ
CLAUSE
Note that the
interjection is totally separate from either clause and does not connect to
them in any way. In this way, it is clearly seen which one is the interjection
compared to the clauses on either side.
XXX
XXX
XXX
Alternate syntax for Interjections
Interjections
can be used as verbs and as attributive verbs and modifiers depending on the
interjection and the usage. Below we will go over the ones used and in which
way the interjections can be used. Note that not all interjections are used in
these ‘alternate ways’.
Interjection syntax
as Subject+Verb
Losa
XXX
INTJ+Dung+Part+of
you useless piece of shit!
Interjection as ATTV
Losa
XXX
DEMO+INTJ+worm+DEG
That disgusting little worm!
Interjection as Object
Losa
XXX
DEMO+RU+INTJ
That is disgusting!
XXX
XXX
XXX
Interjection as modal:
-regu- (Dubitative Mood)
XXX
INTJ+see+2P
Are you sure
we saw (that)?