Comparisons
in Proto-Drem
Proto-Drem
like many other languages on the continent shows comparisons as a relationship
between the two sides of the comparison, rather than by having a quality
expression between the two things being compared. The primary affixes are fá- ‘equals’, mbù
‘more than’, ‘to surpass’ and wà ‘less than’, ‘to
fail, fall short’. Note that for mbù and wà, those are normally quantifiers, but can act as verbs as
well.
The
Degree affix and both verbs can be used in a few constructions shown below:
note that here the normal SVO pattern can be reversed to an OVS which is one of
the very few times the normally strict SVO structure can be changed. The two
sets show the quality affix in two different places. When the quality marker is
at the end of the sentence, the pronouns are always affixes, while when the
quality marker is at the front, the pronouns are independent. The independent
pronoun style is used more in the
Standard Proto-Drem and formal speech
SVO
•
Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) + verb/affix + thing that is
compared with (DO) + bá
XXX
hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) hand is equals (to the) fist)
OVS
•
Thing that is compared with (DO) + verb/affix + Thing that is focus of
comparison (Subject) + bá
XXX
hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) fist is equals (to the) hand
SVO
•
Ba + Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) +
verb/affix + thing that is compared with (DO)
XXX
BA+hand+COMP+fist
(the) hand is equals (to the) fist
OVS
•
Ba + Thing that is compared with (DO) + verb/affix + Thing
that is focus of comparison (Subject)
XXX
BA+hand+COMP+fist
(the) fist is equals (to the) hand
In
Proto-Drem, there is an affix to show that the sentence is a comparison of a
quality between the two things. This quality affix is -bá,
which is used with words that can represent a quality, including nouns, such as
vé ‘to be tall’, sù ‘to be
short’, adjectives and degree affixes, such as -sə
‘big’ or Ŋo
‘white’, and ideophonic adjectives, such as mala ‘difficult’, ‘waŋə
‘easy.
Comparatives
XXX
hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) fist is as big as the hand
Equal comparisons (the degree affix –vé
is usually seen meaning ‘equally’ and fólù ‘equals
to’ is used in mathematics equations)
XXX
hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) fist is equals (to the) hand
XXX
NUM+CONJ+NUM+COMP+NUM+BA
2 + 2 is as big as 4
“Less than”
XXX
Yew tree+COMP+Oak tree+BA
The Yew tree is smaller than the Oak tree
Questions &
Negation:
In
‘wh-‘ question and negative question sentences, the
structure is generally the same with structure seen as Comparative phrase + WHQuestion &
Negation + Comparative clause. This is in line with standard Proto-Drem where
in wh- sentences, the question is at the end, while
in negative statements, and the negative is at the front.
Negatives
XXX
NEG+Yew tree+COMP+Oak tree+BA
the Yew tree is not smaller than the Oak tree
Questions
XXX
Yew tree+COMP+Oak tree+BA
Is the Yew tree is smaller than the Oak tree?
Miscellaneous
Constructions:
There
are a few additional ways to express equation. The miscellaneous constructions
follow all four of the main constructions seen above. The examples below will
just use the standard SVO standard. One
is to use sí ‘same, the same as’, the structure is
seen below.
•
Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) + sí +
thing that is compared with (DO) + ba
XXX
hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) fist is the same as the hand
The
other one is to use né ‘different’, the structure is
seen below.
•
NEG + Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) + verb/affix + thing that is
compared with (DO) + ba
XXX
NEG+hand+COMP+fist+BA
(the) fist is not the same as the hand
Superlatives
in Proto-Drem
Proto-Drem
like many other languages on the continent shows superlatives as a relationship
between the more than two things. The main affixes of –ve-
and the main verbs of mbu and wa are still used just like comparatives. Note that
the meanings of the sentences change due to the changes in superlative
structure, so where a comparative has two things to compare, the superlative
has none, or more than two. Proto-Drem superlatives in how they work, act very
closely to how comparatives work, the key is that there is nothing to compare
in essence. For superlatives, there is one general structure, with –ba- either as the sentence initial affix or at the end of
the sentence.
Standard Proto-Drem and formal speech
•
Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) + verb/affix + ba
Better, Best
XXX
fist+COMP+BA
(the) fist is largest
XXX
hand+COMP+BA
(the) hand is largest
Less, Least
XXX
fist+COMP+BA
(the) fist is smallest
XXX
hand+COMP+BA
(the) hand is smallest
•
Ba + Thing that is focus of comparison (subject) +
verb/affix
Better, Best
XXX
BA+fist+COMP
(the) fist is largest
XXX
BA+hand+COMP
(the) hand is largest
Less, Least
XXX
BA+fist+COMP
(the) fist is smallest
XXX
BA+hand+COMP
(the) hand is smallest
In
‘wh-‘question and negative question sentences, the
structure is generally the same comparatives. These are seen as Comparative
phrase + WHQuestion & Negation + Superlative clause.
This is in line with standard Proto-Drem where in wh-
sentences, the question is at the end, while in negative statements, and the
negative is at the front. The structure is almost identical to comparatives in
general.
Negatives
XXX
NEG+Yew tree+COMP+tree+DEG+BA
the Yew tree is not the smallest of almost all trees
Questions
XXX
Yew tree+COMP+tree+DEG+BA
Is the Yew tree the smallest of almost all trees?
Combined comparative and superlative constructions:
There
are a few additional ways to express this. Note that there are several
conjunctions to connect the 2 sentences, only the most commonly used ones will
be seen in the examples below. The main thing with these constructions is that
the comparative in almost all usage is kept first. The sentence is seen
generally as ‘even though/although’ COMPARATIVE, SUPERLATIVE. In this way, even
when two items are being compared, a superlative can easily be used. Once
again, ba comes into play either at the front or rear
of the sentence with the
Note
that the example is a metaphor to tell others to relax when angry. In the
Proto-Drem thinking, the size of ones fist gets larger with anger, and so the
need to punish something is increased, and violence without a real good reason
is frowned upon. Therefore, a need for calm is required in all social
gatherings, and any anger is looked upon very poorly.
Standard Proto-Drem
gafù + COMPARATIVE clause +
SUPERLATIVE clause
XXX
Although+2P+fist+COMP, 3PP+fist+COMP+BA
although your fist is larger, mine is the smallest (here)
BA+gafù + COMPARATIVE clause + SUPERLATIVE clause
XXX
BA+Although+2P+fist+COMP, 3PP+fist+COMP
although your fist is larger, mine is the smallest (here)
Intensification in
Proto-Drem:
Intensification in Proto-Drem is also a Comparison in that here, we will
see what happens when one says ‘a little there’, or ‘very
nice!’ Intensification usually denotes an emotional response, negative,
positive or neutral. Here, Proto-Drem is the same way, and intensification is
used fairly commonly when emotion is used in speech. Now, one may try to ‘hide
their emotions’ by using a subtle class instead of severe. These markers can
also be used to ‘heighten’ emotions with say intimidation, or interrogation, so
one has to be careful how one interprets an emotional marker like this. These
markers are also interestingly always suffixes, which for this language is odd
since the verb roots always attach directly to the object root, so that any
verb root intensified or uses a comparative will be detached to the object
root. Thus, this is one of the few times a verb is not directly attached to the
object root.
Intensification deals with 3 aspects, a subtle a severe and a neutral
aspect. Neutrals are seen, especially with anger, and any other thing or
emotion that has a positive AND negative aspect. The following chart shows the
neutral, positive and negative aspects, and will after the chart deal with the
ruling on neutral items, thoughts, and actions. Once again for the markers, the
‘V’ denotes the variable vowel in the affix. Intensification can be combined
with comparatives, superlatives, and degrees to give even more detail to the
severity of the item spoken about. This is uncommon, yet for some, these
combinations can be quite revealing. Note: Intensification is very subjective.
Since people are different, especially of people with differing perceptions,
care must be taken with Intensification, since what might be treasure to one,
might be trash to another.
Subtle Neutral –zé
Severe Neutral –zemù
Subtle Negative -ló
Severe Negative -lèŋә
Subtle Positive -jù
Severe Positive -jùlә
Regular usage:
XXX
Emotion+INTS
Annoyed
XXX
Emotion+INTS
Angry
XXX
Emotion+INTS
That wasn’t so bad.
XXX
Emotion+INTS
Enraged!
XXX
Emotion+INTS
Nice….
XXX
Emotion+INTS
Ecstatic!
Combined usage:
Comparatives with Intensification
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
More annoyed
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
More angry
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
More (so) that wasn’t so bad.
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
more enraged!
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
nice….
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
more ecstatic!
Superlatives with Intensification
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Most annoyed
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Most angry
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Most (so) that wasn’t so bad.
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Most enraged!
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Definitely upbeat!
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Most ecstatic!
Comparison Degrees with Intensification
Note that this combined set works with “non-neutral” emotions, and so for
the neutral set, most speakers have a hard time putting into words on how to
intensify a generally neutral or even slightly positive feeling. For other
items like size, dimension, or taste, the general misusages of neutrals in this
case continues. For feelings, degrees that stay with neutrals such as –z are
commonly seen, since neutrals on either an up or down side are usually kept at
a neutral view.
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Very annoyed
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Very angry
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Immensely enraged!
XXX
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Somewhat upbeat!
Nj’ebajuləŋ
Emotion+INTS+COMP
Immensely ecstatic!
Comparisons of Degree:
Precisions of Degree deal with how much in a physical, emotional, thought
or a spiritual sense. For example, when talking of a spirit, the local spirit
is absolute, and so takes on an absolute aspect, while a distant spirit is thought
of as only to a small degree. Emotions are used a lot with these degrees, an
example are lovers who use –-ŋgbá or -ŋkè to describe the intensity.
|
Proto-Drem Precision of degree |
|
|
Prefix |
Meaning |
|
-ra |
The property doesn't even exist; absolute
zero. |
|
-jó |
A negligible degree. The property
might exist, but its degree is so small as to be insignificant |
|
-fù |
To a small degree |
|
-ze |
Mediocre. Neither great nor small |
|
-si |
Slightly on the high side. -- a relatively high degree |
|
-ŋgbá |
Very much, to a very high degree |
|
-ŋkè |
Extremely, absolutely, completely,
utterly |
The structure of a comparison is
quite similar to any of the noun and verbal structures found before. Being a direct
prefix, the marker goes directly onto the root itself.
Degree
words in Proto-Drem:
Degree words can be used many
different ways as well... In some instances, they can e grouped into categories.
Not really noun classes, as some groupings are actions, and therefore, verbs.
Below will be some categories, where degrees can be used to make a point or
make a compound word used as a totally new root. If the compound was degree+noun, then the root is considered a noun, where if
the compound is to be an object, then the syntax is noun+degree.
If the compound was a degree+verb, then the new root
is considered a verb root.
Using degree words with
superlatives, due to the fact that degree words already act as superlatives,
yet, the two remain separate. When used an emphasizer
or intensifier, a superlative can make an extra nuance to the degree word used.
Using amounts with degree words:
XXX Little water (meaning of
the amount of water found or seen is just a little bit)
XXX Little
bandits (meaning that there are only a few bandits seen or heard)
XXX Much
berries (meaning that there is a lot of berries, since there is no comparison
affix, one does not know if the berries found is good or bad news)
XXX Great water (meaning
depends on context, say we have a field... then we can gather that the field is
soaked/drenched with water)
Using distance with degree words:
XXX Small distance (meaning not
far, just over the hill, or to the next village)
XXX Large distance (meaning
going from one village to the next, usually used by merchants/traders)
XXX Great
Distance (meaning going from one end of the Dremish lands to the other side)
Using degree words with food/recipes:
XXX Tiny
Salt (meaning a pinch of salt)
XXX High fire (meaning the
temperature is for high, usually known as simmer)
XXX Much meat (meaning
depends on context. Say we have an empty pot; the speaker could mean to fill
the pot with a lot of meat, but not fill it to the top.)
Using degree words for unusual things, ideas, and concepts:
XXX Infinity (Absolute
distance – generally thought of in varied ways. 1st is the power of
the spirits, 2nd is the age of the earth and how long the people have been
there. “We have always been here”)
XXX Great Anger (looked at
with fear, especially at a volcano going thru an eruption –“The mountain spirit
is greatly angered”)
Using degree words and superlatives:
XXX Severe
Positive Little bandits (meaning that there are so few bandits seen or heard,
that it is almost like a joke, not even worthy of a battle.)
XXX Severe
Negative Absolute cold (meaning the temperature is for so bitterly cold, that
the speaker feels as though they might die.)
XXX Evil, Liar, totally untrustworthy
(people who lie are considered evil and not to be trusted again)
Using
degrees of precision as an Interjection:
Formal setting uses of Yes and No:
Ronə! NO!, a description is using vehemently: She vehemently denied
the accusations against him
Lánə no,
a description is when one is unsure of lying: No baby, I didn’t lie to ya.
Séfə yes,
a description when one is unsure or just giving a standard answer
Ŋawa! YES!, a description is using vehemently: She argued vehemently
for the criminal to be put to death.
The formal usage keeps the vowel
harmony of the persons vowel harmony, For instance if the Questioner asks “Do
you agree?”, and the questions uses back vowel harmony, then the answer will also
use back vowel harmony, if the question is in front vowel harmony, then the
reverse would take place. Formal usage always looks to vowel harmony being
used. The important thing about the interjection is the distinctive usage of na (no) and wa (yes) as part of
the answer.
Colloquial form in usage of Yes or No:
ná! NO!, a description is using vehemently: She vehemently denied
the accusations against him.
This
form is always used for a truthful answer to an ally or friend.
This
form is always an assurance of a correct answer.
na no,
a description is when one is unsure or lying: No baby, I didn’t lie to ya. Also used when a general answer of no is used.
Since
this form of No is used often for an unsure or a straight out lie, one is never
sure of a correct answer.
Allies
or friends are given the absolute form instead of this form.
Strangers
are used this form, since strangers are not yet known to be friend or foe.
fa yes,
a description when one is unsure or just giving a standard answer
Since
this form of No is used often for an unsure or a straight out lie, one is never
sure of a correct answer.
Allies
or friends are given the absolute form instead of this form.
Strangers
are used this form, since strangers are not yet known to be friend or foe.
ŋa! YES!, a description is using vehemently: She argued vehemently
for the truthfulness of her claim.
This
form is always used for a truthful answer to an ally or friend.
This
form is always an assurance of a correct answer.
The colloquial version of Yes and No
answers (usually used as an Interjection) as can be seen is the front vowel
harmony version, but with high tone to differentiate between them and the
regular more formal Yes/No answers. Vowel harmony is less of a concern in
everyday informal usage. The usage here uses the standard na (no) and wa (yes) as
answers for the regular yes/no, but there are no differences with the vehement
usage
Abuses of the colloquial forms:
Rarely, but it has happened,
where someone tried to “bend the rules”, and use the absolute form, when they
really needed to use the Unsure form. People, who are caught doing this, are
quickly found out, and people who know the person add the –XXX- to their name or title. The
suffix as known means “evil one”, and includes the connotation of “liar”.
Usually people that fall to such levels usually leave their villages and clans
to become a mercenary or hermit.
Example:
XXX
NAME+evil one
Bombo the evil one
Examples of -ŋu
as an Intensifier:
The
–ŋu has a special usage, which strangely also is
used by the augmentive verb extension –isa/-isisa as an intensifier. The two are nearly the same
and in ways can be thought of as redundant, but have slightly separate uses in
certain ways of thinking and structure. The verb extension is suffixed directly
to the verb root to construct a new verb root, whereas degree suffix is seen
usually at the end of a verb phrase or object to give certain intensity to the
phrase. I will give ample examples to show in differing ways the intensifier
can be used. Note that the above chart shows a basic view of ‘completely,
utterly, absolutely, or extremely’, these examples below will show a wider and
deeper meaning to this unique degree/intensifier.
For
more examples of the varied usages of the intensifier, seek the Proto-Drem
dictionary. Note also that some of these ‘combination roots are a verb-object
combination together as a phrase technically, yet here is seen as a whole and
single verb root. The intensifier is seen generally four ways as seen below
Compound word:
The
compound words in Proto-Drem are commonly seen and varied in many ways. One of
the uncommon ways a compound roots takes shape is a verb and an object complex
forming a clause. And so in some ways, these compound roots are entire sections
of sentences and depending on what is dropped, in a few cases, they can be used
as an entire sentence.
XXX v. to cut
precisely into 2 equal halves (From v. to cut into 2 halves + DEG)
Intensified Verb root:
Here,
the root is an already intensified verb root. Rare in most cases, but seen,
these do show up in various ways and with shades of meaning, an intensified
root can pose trouble for some.
XXX v.
to stay silent (From v. completely silent + DEG)
Normal Verb Root:
These
are normally the basic root seen that is intensified in Proto-Drem. Commonly
seen with intensification, this is normally what is expected by speakers and
listeners of the language.
XXX v. (to be) whole,
complete (From v. to be full + DEG)
Intensified Affix:
These
are even rarer than compound words, and the affixes that start with a vowel are
rarer still. These can trip up even an experienced speaker. Due to the common
usage of Degree affixes, there is not a shock of verb initial affixes, but when
used with an intensifier, these affixes take on a life of themselves.
XXX v. (to be)
very/utterly vast (From DEG + DEG) [spoken of the night sky and all the spirits(stars) that live in it]
Pejorative in Proto-Drem:
A
Pejorative form is used in a condescending, negative attitude toward something.
One thing to remember is the two forms; one for a root that ends in a vowel,
the other is for a root that ends in a consonant. The common translation of the
suffix is ‘damned’ as in a bad, cursed sort of way. The suffix is –ncí-. Note that the Drem rarely swear
or cuss, and so the language is filled with a variety of emotions and hints of
swearing, the Pejorative is the only way for the Drem to specifically curse an
object or action.
Uses
of Pejoratives:
In Proto-Drem, Pejoratives can be and is used in a variety
of ways, most of the times, to curse at an object, so a person, place or thing,
basically nouns. But, verbs and rarely seen an idea or question is used in differing
ways. Below will be explained just a bit with a few examples, to see in a bit
more depth how Pejoratives can tweak even normal syntax in some surprising
ways.
Nouns:
The standard object used with the Pejorative. Most persons,
places and things can be ‘damned’, and shown in the chart above; the pejorative
is suffixed unto the noun itself.
XXX Damned
man
XXX Damned
village
Verbs:
Another thing that is used, but rarer than nouns is to swear
at or cuss at actions. Verbs are very common in Proto-Drem, but the thinking of
swearing at an actions still seems odd, since the Drem will definitely swear at
the ‘doer’ of the action. One thing that is seen is for the verb when possible
to be converted to a noun with a conversion affix. The other way a verb can be
sometimes seen is as the pejorative be seen as an Interjection. As an
Interjection, this way is unusual, yet seems to be catching on.
Pejorative use:
Noun+PEJ+Verb
XXX my
damned sleeping …
Interjection use:
INTJ Noun+Verb
XXX Damn!
My sleeping…
Oddities:
Questions and other Affixes can be seen with a pejorative,
whereby the pejorative looks like an Interjection and in a lot of ways acts
just like one. In the chart above, the Question affix shows easily how a
question affix fits nicely with the Pejorative in its “interjection” mode.
INTJ w/ Question:
INTJ Sentence+Ques
XXX Damn!
You didn’t eat (it), did you?
Another easily seen affix is actually a pronoun, in
this case, either ‘This’ or ‘That’. The two demonstrative pronouns b’a and mb’a with –ncí can provide a simple form of cussing.
Cursives:
Pro+PEJ+DO
mb’anci That dammed
thing!
mb’encijə That damned
person!
LOCATIVES
IN PROTO-DREM
Locatives
in Proto-Drem are considered ‘true’ prepositions, and always affix themselves
to the noun that follows. True prepositions cannot appear alone, and must have
a complement to give the full meaning, therefore, the locative cannot be found
as independent verbs. The Proto-Drem locatives are seen below. Proto-Drem has a
fairly extensive list of locatives, dealing with most aspects of surrounding
the inside and outside of an object/space. There are also a few locatives that
deal with edges or contact, or even being in close proximity of an object.
Since the locatives are still generalized, ambiguity can happen, so care must
be taken with the context.
|
Locative affixes/Directional verbs |
|
|
affix |
English gloss |
|
-fà- |
In, inside, into,
within, amidst, |
|
-bì
- |
out of, out |
|
-vò- |
upon, up on, over,
above, overhead, top |
|
-d’è
- |
Around, about |
|
-b’ò- |
Up, up to, above,
upstairs, on the upper side |
|
-sì- |
Down, below, under,
downstairs, underneath |
|
-sò- |
Behind, in back of,
rear, |
|
-mbù |
Before, in front of |
|
-ndì- |
by, to, toward,
towards |
|
-gbù
- |
Away from, away, from |
|
-ŋgà- |
Along, beside,
against, by, next to, near, close |
|
-zà- |
Beyond, far from, over
there, distant, far away |
|
-gà- |
Through, cross, pass, pass
by, pass through |
Note
that the locatives contain a bit of inherent ambiguity. The sense of being on
an object, physically touching it can be thought of and not physically touching
it, but by being very close to it. So take -nj’ò- with XXX
for ‘The female (is) on the male’. Depending on context, she can be above him,
or physically on top, laying on him. The next example is also ambiguous in that
an object is above the rock, but we don’t know just how far above it is. That
is why we must remember that Proto-Drem is a spoken language and thus we would
have been able to see the rock being spoken about.
XXX
LOC+rock
above the rock
Exceptions
to the rule:
Proto-Drem
like most languages have exceptions with the rules
being broken thru certain usage usually done by some or all the speakers. The
exception with locatives is a fairly simple one. Here, the exception is that
the locatives (in being a true preposition and in need on a complement) will
sometimes take on a ‘life of their own’, and actually be seen as a noun.
Now
what this means can be confusing, since a locative ‘acting’ as a noun will not
take a neither noun-class nor pronoun, nor subject/object complement. SO in
this case, the locative is a very restricted ‘noun in how it works. Thus, the
locative does not take on a pronoun marker to show the locative as an object or
indirect object. This can prove to be confusing for some, as the locative is
usually always used with a noun, and the noun is marked leaving the locative
unmarked. So since the locatives are unmarked, in these uses, the locatives
continue to be unmarked, but are used as a ‘noun’.
So
care must be taken with using locatives as a noun. In clear usage, and usually
fairly simple sentences, the locatives can be easily used, but in sentences of
a somewhat complex nature, clarity will always be in need.
Locatives as ‘object’:
In
the two examples below, one finds 2 ideas of ‘current’ usage to show how
locatives are used to ‘break the rules’. The first three are to show how
locatives can be used as a direct object. Note, that the three examples show
how the locative can be used with 3 ideas in mind. The first idea is to show it
as a direct object with a modal and pro-drop (which means the subject has been
assumed and therefore not used). The second one shows the ru-
particle is used to show emphasis on the location. Note that the ru- particle is in essence a locative, but here is acting as
a mysterious ‘to be’ verb. The third example shows how the locative would be
used in “normal” speech with a subject, verb and using the locative as a direct
object.
The
next examples show how the locative can be used as an indirect object. The
first example shows the locative of where the object (you) is to go, in this
case ‘over there’. The second example is an interesting example since it shows how
the locative can be used as an indirect object with the conjunction providing
the separation between it and the ‘proper usage’ of the locative with the table
(on the table).
XXX
come-IMP-LOC
Come
here!
XXX
1P-RU-LOC
I
am over here
XXX
1P-TAM-go-LOC
I
just went over there
XXX
go-OBV-2P-LOC
( I ) wish you to go over there
XXX
NEG-Spear-lay-table-LOC
CONJ LOC
The
spear lays not on the table but (is) over there.
Locative
Structure:
Locatives
in Proto-Drem are always seen as Affix/Verb + Noun, and the tone of all locatives
is always hi tone, unless changed by tone sandhi.
Locative “Prepositions” Derived from Nouns
Proto-Drem
also has a category of locatives that are derivations of nouns. These nouns are
sometimes from body parts, or weapons, or other objects, but all are from
tangible objects used everyday. With these prepositional nouns, there is no
need for a 3P pronoun gu ‘it’ since the locative-like
noun will have by implication agreement with the object it is locating.
|
Locatives derived from nouns |
|
|
affix |
English gloss |
|
- ngù - |
end of, edge of, tip
of, opening of |
|
- nè - |
very edge |
|
- Ŋgbú
- |
Between, between us |
|
- dè- |
Opposite (side of)
[always used in a physical location sense] |
XXX
mouth+LOC
edge of the mouth
XXX
1PP+LOC
between us
Compass Points
There
are several ‘locatives’ that are actually compound words representing
‘directions’. Several directions used are, “Sun-rise”, “Falling Sun”, “towards
shore” or ”from shore” have locatives inherent in
their directionality. Also directions such as ‘right’ or ‘left’ are also
commonly used. In any case, these words being compound words are used just as
if they were a single root, yet with a specific direction, which is always from
the speaker’s perspective, and so has ambiguity inherent in it. Note that there
are two styles of usage, the first needs no more information, and is treated as
an interjection, yet can be filled in with added detail if needed. The second
is a directional that requires more information to be clear.
Directional with no need for more info
XXX
LOC
to the right
XXX
LOC
to the left
Directional with need for more info
XXX
DEMO+way
That way
XXX
lake+LOC
towards the lake
XXX
Sun Fall + go
Go west
XXX
Sun-rise + go
Go east
Words Meaning ‘place’ or ‘area’:
Proto-Drem
has one word that means ‘place’ or ‘area’ and can used in several ways where
‘place’ can be a vague area, or part of a name to mark a specific location.
Note that for specific location types, a physical location or the
‘presence/effect’ of something can mark the locale.
Ndábòndá* n. area
* will typically be seen as CV+ndóòndá
when preceded by a noun class or possessive. Also in these cases, it must be
the subject of a sentence, and not the object.
Vague area
XXX
DEMO+area+LOC
towards that area
Specific location
XXX
hut+LOC
towards the hut
Place names with implied locatives:
These
three words have special lexical status in Proto-Drem. In addition to their
developing locative “prepositional” functions, they have become lexicalized as
an obligatory or quasi-obligatory component of many expressions, and their base
meaning has faded or been lost entirely. A number of place names incorporate
these words.
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
XXX
Using ‘place’ with
questions:
The
word ndábòndá can be used with questions in various ways
in a simple format. Since ‘area’ is technically an object, any noun-class or
possessive would go to the right of the object. The main structures seen are noun+ndábòndá+NC/Poss+wh- and noun+LOC+area+NC/Poss+wh.
Note that the addition of the noun-class/Possessive are optional, but will be
used for possession discussions.
noun+area+NC/Poss+wh
XXX
NC1+area+person+QUAFF
Is the person (on) my land?
person+ndábòndá+NC/Poss+wh
XXX
person+LOC+area+NC/Poss+wh
Is the person inside of (the) area?
Ndábòndá refers to a general place and location, and so ndábòndánja
refers to the interior of a locale and ndábòndánjandèh
refers specifically to the interior of a hut. So ndèh
is the physical location that the ‘place’ locative is affixed to.
Locative Deictics and “Pro-locatives”
These
small affixes are in some ways locatives, as they deal with ‘place’, with one
even looking very much like a wh- question. These affixes
like all locatives belong at the usual place for locatives, even the one that
asks ‘where?’ which is normally a question and would belong at the back. These ‘psuedo’ locatives are also used as objects and so also use
the ‘object-exception rule’ for locatives being used as objects.
Locative-like
rù Loc. Here
dà Loc.
There, over there, the place in question
sàŋe Loc. everywhere, anywhere
gàzu Loc. someplace
Question-like
fúlə Loc. Where?
Deictics used as
objects:
Here
these can be used just like normal locatives, and are also used as such with
the exception rule where locatives can be used as objects. The second example
will show an unusual form, where the word ‘here’ is actually the ru-particle, and so the example will show a highly usually
and rae ‘double-ru’ form
which generally means ‘is here’ and so shows emphasis due to the first ‘ru’. Note that this example is basically considered ‘bad-grammar’
and is frowned upon, but for young speakers, it is used.
XXX
come-IMP-Here
Come
here!
XXX
1P-RU-Here
I
am over here
XXX
1P-TAM-go-Here
I
just came/got here