The Copula “To Be” in
Proto-Drem:
In Proto-Drem, there is no true ‘to be’ verb, and so
is usually read from context. Below are some easy examples to give one a good
idea of how one can use context to bring in a ‘to be’ verb. Also, one can see
how to easily negate that invisible ‘to be’ verb, and how both ways can be done
thru context. Na- is used to negate the ‘to be’ verb. The negation works in two
ways. First na- is neutral and is a quick negation as in ‘is not’ or isn’t.
Using
negation:
XXX
NEG+3PS+here
He
isn’t here
XXX
NEG+1PS
It
wasn’t me
XXX
NEG+3PS+friend
He’s
not a friend.
“to be” in mathematics:
G’ňlú
‘equals to’ or ‘namely’ cannot be negated. This variant of ‘to be’ is usually
used in math when working with numbers.
Standard usage:
XXX
3+To add+4+to let/have+7
Three
plus four is seven.
XXX
To
let/have+three+difficult namely+…
There
are three problems, namely…
nčbč (to let/have) is used for ‘there is/there are’.
XXX
400+To let/have+people
There
are 400 people
Negation of g’ňlú
XXX
NEG+To let/have+time
There
isn’t time
“to be” in locations:
G’ňmbň
(To be situated/located at) describes the location of things. And this style
can also be negated to show how it can be used as well.
Standard usage:
XXX
Where+To be situated at+village+POSS
Where
is my village?
XXX
LOC+To be situated at+hut
It’s
in the hut.
Negation of using g’ňmbň
XXX
NEG+LOC+To be situated at+hut
It
isn’t in the hut
Modal
Verbs in Proto-Drem:
In Proto-Drem, there are the standard Modals which
are always attached to the left of the verb root, and deal with a lot of
emotional and subjective perceptions. These modals are a lot of the same in
some ways, although these don’t act the same way as the “real” modals.
These
are auxiliary verbs which speak of possibility, probability, ability,
necessity, volition and obligation. The only MODAL that is not an aux verb is
the modal used with ability/permission. The possibility/probability modal is a
series of separate aux verbs that all depend on context of the sentence. Most
of the other MODALS also are only 1 aux verb, and so are fairly easy to figure
out. When speaking, make sure that the dual use MODALS are known as the affix
can be used wrongly as an aux verb compared to a MODAL, so care must be taken
with correct usage.
Possibility/Probability:
The
groups of possibility markers are split into 3 groups. The first one deals with
an implied question about the possibility of an action taking place. The second
one is an implied indicative which implies the possibility of an action being
done. The last one is one that is more of a subjective indicative-like mood
which states the possibility of an action taking currently place. Note that the
action can already be in the process of finishing, or can already be finished
depending on what tense marker is used. Of the three groups, the last one is
most hazy since it’s not really asking a question, nor is it stating a fact, it
is much more of a subjective emotion which can vary due to a persons
perception. The three groups of course can be negated, all the same way. These
can be used with tenses and moods as well to clarify or add information to the
statement. It shows before the verb it modifies MOD+VP
Standard usage:
May/might/could
be (mba)
XXX
1PS+MOD+go
May I go?
Possibility/Will
probably/sure to/Likely to/Tends to/usually (bň)
XXX
1PS+MOD+hunt+today
I am likely to hunt today
Seems
that (lů)
XXX
3P+MOD+hunt+good
It seems that the hunt is good
Negation of mba-, bň- and lů-
They
are negated by NEG+varied+VP
XXX
NEG+1PS+MOD+hunt+today
I am not likely to hunt today
Ability/Permission:
- nčbč
This
shows up before the verb phrase. It speaks of a knowing how to do something,
and being physically able to do something: The standard structure is seen as
MOD+VP
Standard usage:
XXX
MODAL+To let/have+spear
Can
I borrow the spear?
Negation of nčbč
Negating
this modal shows as na+MOD+VP. From the example below,
Most of the time, any negation is in asking a question trying to respond to an
earlier answer. One sees the usage with youth talking to an elder family
member, especially a parent.
XXX
NEG+MODAL+To let/have+spear+QUES
Why
can’t I borrow the spear?
Necessity:
- mbâ
This
modal deals with needs, desires, “musts” and other emotionally driven ideas.
Thus this modal is seen fairly common in speech. Like the other modals, it is
used with plenty of tenses, moods, aspects and of course, it can be negated.
The structure is like the above modals already seen, and that style is the
typical MOD+VP.
Have
to
Must
Need
Necessary
to
Standard usage:
XXX
1PS+MOD+To let/have+3P
I must have it
Negation of mbâ
To
negate this modal shows up as na(not) + MODAL VERB +
VERB PHRASE
XXX
NEG+1PS+MOD+To let/have+3P
I mustn’t have it
XXX
not+MODAL+need
There’s
no need
Obligation:
sâ
The
modal shows up as sâ + VERB PHRASE
Should
Ought
to
Standard usage:
XXX
1PP+MODAL+To come+late
We
should return late
Negating sâ
To
negate this modal, the negation is at the front NEG+MOD+VP
XXX
NEG+1PP+MODAL+To come+late
We
ought not to return late
Want to
wâ
Shows
up like the other modals: wâ+VP
Want
to
Would
like to
Desire
to
Standard usage:
XXX
1PS+MODAL+To go+hut
I’d
like to go home
Negation of wâ
It’s
negated much the same way as the others. NEG+ MOD+VP
XXX
NEG+1PS+MODAL+To go+hut
I
don’t want to go home
Stative
Verb Constructions in Proto-Drem:
Stative
constructions indicate that a noun is in a state, normally one that is the
result of an action. The base root for all statives is a verb or adjective, but
there are some ways to use them without using a verb or adjective. If the base
verb has an intransitive sense, the subject is in the stative implied by the
action, if the base verb has a transitive sense; the object is in the stative
implied by the action
Stative Form
Statives
derived from verbs have the form Verb/Adjective + CNVA. The conversion affix (CNVA)
is also used in various other verbal constructions. The CNVA is the stative
construction that must be referred and agree to the noun phrase earlier in the
same sentence. Unlike final affixes of verbs, which can only be objects (direct
or indirect); the CNVA can be the subject or object, depending on the meaning
of the verb. The examples use the stative as a predicate. A stative by itself
would have little meaning.
Singular
XXX
2P+fish+CNVA
You (are) fishing
Plural
XXX
2P+fish+CNVA
We (are) fishing
Statives as Attributive
Modifiers
Attributive
constructions with statives have the form Noun + verb + CNVA (note the CNVA is
the stative marker). This is the same structure as found with attributive
verbs, Noun+ATTV+CNVA constructions. Note that in a lot of ways, statives as
attributive verbs can be confused as predicates since the copula is implied.
Watch for possible downstep issues with over stem boundaries. So the examples
will be separated by the downstep issue to show how the tones look.
Downstep
XXX
2P+cover+CNVA
She (is) covering
No Downstep
XXX
3P+breathe+CNVA
They
(are) breathing
Statives as Predicates
Statives
can serve as predicates. The sentence structure is Subject + Stative with no
additional marking. Note that there is no ‘to be’ verb, but it is implied in
the meaning. Watch for possible downstep issues with over stem boundaries. So
the examples will be separated by the downstep issue to show how the tones
look.
Downstep
XXX
2P+cover+CNVA
She (is) covering
No Downstep
XXX
3P+breathe+CNVA
They
(are) breathing
Another
difference that needs to be looked at is the one being with shades of state.
The main but subtle difference is between existing state and inchoative state. A
few of the common inchoative state verbs used are ‘melt, dry, sweeten chill,
burn, wither, and brighten. So note that this ‘inchoative state’ is one of the
few things that scholar’s state that Proto-Drem has an inchoative aspect. Yet,
the times it happens is rare and so it is noted in the
grammar, but note that this process does happen.
Inchoative
XXX
Ice+whiten
the ice whitened.
Existing state
XXX
ice+bright
the ice is bright.
Statives as Objective
and Subjective Complements
Statives
can be complements to subjects and objects
Complements
to objects:
XXX
snow fall+CNVA
The light falling snow that flies with the wind …
Miscellaneous
Constructions:
Attributive
verbs also work as stative verbs. So the degree-word XXX is ‘small’ and the
verb ‘To be small’. And the stative verb like the attributive verb goes before
the noun.
ATTV
+ NOUN
XXX
DEGREE+hut
A
small house/the small house
XXX
Black+spear
A
black spear/the spear is black
XXX
Spicy+food
spicy food/the food is spicy
Adjectives
rarely go after a ‘to be’ verb. In very few cases they do, such as seen below.
The (to be) verb used is the –ru- affix
VERB
+ ATTV
XXX
To
be+concerned
To
be concerned
XXX
To
be+single
To
be single, unmarried
XXX
To
be+to lead
To
be in charge of
‘Ŕ-/Ŕbň-’ in Proto-Drem
Proto-Drem
has a simple word ŕ- that heads phrases like ‘one that has...’ or ŕbň– used
with ‘one that does...’. These phrases usually have a noun or noun phrase that
follows. Note that an ‘ŕ/ŕbň’ noun or noun phrase cannot take a pronoun
compliment itself. A good translation would be “one that has..., someone
with...” They also are used with verbs, a verbal noun, or a noun implying
activity of some kind. Here, the translation is a DOER phrase that uses –bň and
is used as “one that does...”. Normally, this ‘doer’
phrase is not for inherent activities, it is used more for a ‘skill’ like
hunting or leading. The last use is a fossilized version showing association.
So care must be taken with regards to context for these regularly used phrases.
Phrasal styles
‘One who…’, ‘Ones who…’
XXX
a+sleep
one who sleeps
‘One does…’, ‘Ones do…’
XXX
abo+cheat
one which cheats
A
cheater
‘One associated with…’, ‘Ones associated with…’
XXX
a+1Poss+people
one who is associated with my people
‘a clanmate’
Tone concerns:
With
the ŕ/ŕbň phrasal affix, it unlike many affixes has an inherent Low-tone, and
can induce downstep in their complements if the complement has High-tone. On
the other hand, downstep is ignored if the compliment has Low or Mid tone.
Downstep
XXX
A+
One who is associated with the
A ‘keeper of
No Downstep
XXX
A+bear
One who is associated with the bear
(one who has the bear as their
totem spirit)
2. Syntax and Meaning of
ŕ-/ŕbň- Phrases
There
are three general styles of phrases concerning syntax. First, there are those
with nouns or noun phrases. Next are those that are derived from a verb phrase,
and last, there are those where the meaning is “associated with...” The ŕ/ŕbň
phrases are always considered stand alone phrases, as these phrases are a kind
of miscellaneous use due to minimal concerns and so therefore has in it some
degree of ambiguity. Note that with verbs and verb phrases, the meaning are not
an inherent ‘state’; it is more of an exercise of that activity. For instance,
‘stingy person’ better means ‘a person who exercises stinginess’.
Nouns/Noun phrase
Downstep
XXX
abo+magic
One who does magic (Wizard, Witchdoctor, Mage)
No
Downstep
XXX
abo+truth
One who exercises truth (one who is truthful)
XXX
abo+spirit
One who is associated with spirits
(a shaman)
Verb/Verb phrase
XXX
abo+pleasure
one who exercise pleasure (usually a slave with ‘interesting talents’. They are
usually treated better than normal slaves who are used as labor)
XXX
abo+make suffer/victimize
one who exercises suffering and victimizes (usually thought of as lower than
slaves, and killed on sight when found)
Association
XXX
a+spirit
one who is associated with a spirit (usually thought of as a shaman)
a/abo phrases have been specialized, as a new usage has crept
in. ‘One who has dominion over..,
head/leader of...’ this is used with chiefs, a title holder, and the head of a
clan and so on.
XXX
Dominion
over+people+evil
One
who has dominion over an evil people (usually a hated chief or king)
Use with traits and
abilities
Proto-Drem
has many compound nouns that refer to afflictions, character traits, and
abilities. These are looked at as adjectives and attributive verbs, and so only
when an attribute or characteristic is used in a ‘neutral’ way or in a way to
talk about a general group or people, then an ŕ/ŕbň- phrase is formed. Note the
neutral usage is more of a politeness or can be used as a sarcastic remark,
either way, it is meant to the person intended is not sure of just ‘who/what’
the speaker is talking about. Note that the second example uses a normally
independent interjection, but here; it shows a negative characteristic of a
person or group and therefore can be used in a quietly nasty way. All
interjections that are characteristics or abilities can be used in this way.
Neutral
XXX
abo+colorfulness
one which exercises colorfulness (usually flamboyant, chatty, flighty and so on…)
Sarcastic
XXX
abo+INTJ
one who exercises hesitation, doubt, disagreements (spoken quietly, is a sharp,
nasty statement)
Verb/Verb Phrase
specifics
The
phrase can be seen in several places, mostly used with verbal nouns. These
‘nouns’ cannot take a pronoun complement as the pronoun is forced to become an
independent pronoun. The examples below will be seen as verbal nouns, and so
the ‘base’ verb won’t be seen anymore, and an example would be hunt+DOER means
‘hunter’ and therefore the verbal noun shows up. With these verbal nouns, these
would become the object of the verb. These are usually seen as ‘doer’ verbs and
use abo-. Note that these ‘verbal nouns’ are used without aspectual tense,
while as a formal usage verb phrase, aspectual tense must be used.
Verbal Noun/colloquial:
XXX
abo+pleasure
one who exercises pleasure
Verb phrase/formal:
XXX
abo+pleasure
one who exercises pleasure
Negatives in verb phrases:
The
general negative marker na-, which can be used and a proper translation of a
nominalized verb, would be ‘one who does not do...’ Note that just like
negatives, na- always goes at the front of the phrase.
XXX
NEG+abo+pleasure
one who doesn’t exercises pleasure
Questions in verb phrases:
Subjects
that are questioned or emphasized, and therefore focused on will be considered
here. Like all questions, the question affix comes at the end of the verb
phrase
XXX
NEG+abo+pleasure+QUAFF
Is (this the) one who doesn’t exercises pleasure?
Place names:
Association
with place names is another area where ŕ/ŕbň- is used. Cultural groups,
especially nomadic peoples are usually named after their preferred environment,
such as XXX ‘People (of) the
Downstep
XXX
a+people+of+NAME
one who is associated with the people of the icy forest
No Downstep
XXX
a+people+of+NAME
one who is associated with the people of the grey mountains