NEGATION IN PROTO-DREM:

 

All negative statements used nà (not, no), but nábə (don’t) and b’ólè (to forbid) are also seen in commands, and zábù (not yet) is seen in as a negative response to questions. Remember, when the context is clear, subject and object dropping is common. Also, Aspect/Tense may be not used when the context is clear, so context must be looked at carefully.

 

Negating main verbs:

 

The structure remains the same no matter if just a standard verb, verb phrase or even a verb compound. Note that with this style, the SUBJ is often dropped.

 

nà (not, no) + VERB PHRASE

 

XXX

NEG+To go

I’m not going

 

XXX

NEG+To Look at+3PS

I didn’t look at her.

 

Using specific nouns (named people/things)

 

This pattern occurs with modal verbs expressing ability and permission. Remember, the name is not attached to the negation prefix, due to the ‘isolation’ of the names to distinguish them from ‘normal nouns’.

 

XXX

NEG+NAME+To speak

Bumbe can’t speak

 

XXX

NEG+NAME+to go

Bumbe can’t go

 

Negating resultive verbs:

 

The negation is slightly different since a resultive verb is slightly different than a main verb. Zábù is used to convey an action which is not yet finished. Most of the time, the SUBJ is kept, although with some speakers, the SUBJ can be dropped.

 

nà (not, no) + SUBJ+RESULTIVE VERB

 

XXX

NEG+2P+To sleep

We didn’t sleep

 

XXX

NEG+3P+To find

He can’t find it.

 

zábù (not yet) SUBJ+RESULTIVE VERB+OBJECT

 

XXX

NEG+3P+To finish+ work

He hasn’t yet finished work

 

Negating auxiliary verbs:

 

There are three main patterns to watch for.

 

nà (not, no) + AUX VERB + VERB PHASE

 

bulù                  Used to do/be, have ever been done/been (an old compound affix from the root “to do” and the ru- particle)

sâ                     Should/ought

wâ                    Want to/would like to

mbâ                  Have to/must

 

XXX

NEG+AUXVERB+To go

We don’t want to go home.

 

XXX

NEG+AUXVERB+To tell

We don’t have to tell him/there’s no need to tell him.

 

AUX VERB + nà (not, no) + VERB PHRASE

 

ŋè                     non-past time marker (usually meant in an immediate or near non-past meaning)

nèbè                 May/might/can/could (uses the ability/permission modal as in ‘can I’ or ‘could I’)

XXX                   will probably/sure to/almost nearly

XXX                   likely to/apt to/ tend to/usually

XXX                   seems that/look like/as though

mbâ                  have to/must/need to

 

XXX

AUXVERB+NEG+To go

I might not go

 

XXX

AUXVERB+NEG+To show interest

You probably won’t be interested

 

XXX

AUXVERB+NEG+To tell

You must not tell him

 

Zá- + VERB PHRASE

 

This is used to give a negative past with verbs of motion, action, utterance, etc. Do not use this with stative verbs. You will notice that zá- is different from nà- (don’t), in that nà- is used for commands and non-past meanings. It is also seen to contradict an assumption. Lastly, it negates the locative/verb rù- (to be named, to be). Note that the verb is rarely used.

 

XXX

3PS NEG+To buy

He didn’t buy it

 

XXX

Friend+NEG+To come

My friend didn’t come

 

XXX

NEG 3PS+NEG+To be

No, she’s not.

 

XXX

NEG 1PS+NEG

No, I didn’t.

 

XXX

To be called+NEG+To be NAME

My name isn’t Sob.

 

XXX

1PS+NEG+To be LOCATION

I’m not an Alorian.

 

Rù- + NOUN:

                       

This way negates the locative rù- (to be/is) + NOUN. The first part of the affix goes in front of the verb, while the final section goes at the end of the noun, as the verb and object are glued, and so the negation negates to verb in a way like ‘is not’ or ‘isn’t’. Since -rù- is really a locative, as in a physical presence at a place, the ability of ‘is/to be’ is a minor one, but is seen very rarely in the language. Due to this ability shown in the examples below, linguists are still pondering if the language is gaining a ‘to be’ verb or seeing the final decimation of one.

 

XXX

This+To be+not+hut

This isn’t his hut

 

XXX

3PS+To be+not+friend

He’s not a friend

 

It can also be seen as (neither… nor…)

 

XXX

Neither+vegetable+nor+fruit

It’s neither vegetable nor fruit.

 

XXXnà (there are not):

 

This is used before a noun to form the negative quantifier (not any) and ‘no’:

 

XXX + NOUN

 

XXX

There are not+friend+To come

No friends came to visit me

 

It’s also used to negate an indefinite pronoun XXX (anyone, anywhere and anything)

 

XXX

There are not+anyone+To know

No one knows

 

XXX

There are not+anything+To happen

Nothing happened.

 

XXX

There are not+anywhere+good

There’s nowhere suitable.

 

Modifying negatives: Intensifying and softening:

 

nà (not, no) + VERB PHRASE + INT/SOFT

 

XXX…XX                        not at all…

XXX…XX                        not…for sure…

XXX…XX                        absolutely not…

 

XXX

3PS+not+To come+for sure

He’s not coming for sure

 

Another style that shows up and is heard.

 

nà(not, no)…. + XXX (not…nor even a single…)

 

XXX

1PS+not+To know+not+nor even a single..

I don’t know even a single person…

 

Common softeners:

XXX       not very

 

XXX

1PS+not+To like+DEGREE+NEG

I didn’t like it very much.

 

Negative Imperatives:

 

nà (Don’t) + VERB PHRASE or XXX (it’s forbidden to…) + VERB PHRASE

 

These can be made even more emphatic by adding XXX (absolutely not, under no circumstances, don’t ever…)

 

nà (Don’t) + VERB PHRASE or XXX (it’s forbidden to…) + VERB PHRASE

 

XXX

Don’t+To tell

Don’t tell him (right?)

 

nà (Don’t) nà + VERB PHRASE conveys the sense that it is the wrong time for doing something.

 

XXX

Don’t+NEGA+To tell

Don’t tell him just yet, OK?

 

XXX

Don’t+To tell+EMPHATIC

Not now! (Don’t tell him now!)

 

Negative Causatives:

 

These are used in four ways. First is a standard causative, and the second is when negating an action in the past. The last two deal with specifying verbs and depending on if the specifying verb is negated. Remember, when the context is clear, subject and object dropping is very common. Although, when the context is not clear, both subject and objects are usually kept.

 

SUBJECT(human/non-human) + nà (not, no) + VERB + OBJECT(usually uses 3P [it])

 

XXX

1PS+not+To break

I won’t damage it

 

XXX

1PS+not+To break

I didn’t break it.

 

SUBJECT(human/non-human) + nà (not, no) + nèbè(to let/have) + VERB + OBJECT(usually uses 2P [he, she])

 

XXX

3PS+not+To let+To cook+mate

He doesn’t let his mate cook

 

XXX

3PS+not+To let+To come+3PS

He didn’t let him come

 

SUBJECT(human) + SPECIFYING VERB + nà (not, no) + nèbè (to let) + VERB PHRASE + OBJECT

 

XXX

3PS+To tell+not+To let+To find+salt+DEGREE

He told me not to find a lot of salt.

 

In negative causatives, ‘double negatives’ can and do occur such as XXX (forbid) nà (not, no) XXX [forbid not to let] or XXX (refuse) nà (not, no) XXX [refuse not to let]

 

XXX

Forbid not to let+To open+door

Don’t open the door

 

SUBJECT(human) + nà (not, no) +SPECIFYING VERB + nèbè (to let/have) + VERB PHRASE + OBJECT(animate)

 

XXX

Refuse not to let+to warn+to watch+bandit+many

He didn’t warn us to watch out for bandits

 

SUBJECT(human/non-human) + nà (not, no) + nèbè (to let) + VERB PHRASE + OBJECT

 

XXX

1PS+not+To let+To wake+To be late+To go+hunt

Getting up late didn’t make me late to go hunting

 

Negative questions:

 

These are formed by (You didn’t…. did you?). Proto-Drem is the reverse of English in that instead of Yes (I did), in Drem a ‘yes’ means (I didn’t) and the ‘no’ means (I did). So responding usually requires a bit more information to clarify an answer.

 

Nà (not, no) + VERB + ŋalù

SUBJECT + VERB + nà (not, no) + ŋalù

 

XXX / XXX

No (I don’t know)/Yes I know

 

XXX

You don’ know, right?

 

XXX / XXX

Yes (It’s mine)/No.

 

Negative conditional clauses:

 

These are seen as XXX (unless, otherwise if…not) are introduced by XXX (otherwise)

 

XXX

Otherwise+not+To go

Otherwise I’m not going

 

XXX

If+don’t+want to+To go don’t+have to

If you don’t want to go, (you) don’t have to.

 

Saying ‘No’:

 

The response always depends on the question particle. For example, a ‘no’ answer to a question that ends in … nà (not, no) is nà + VERB PHRASE. Shown below are the two examples heard commonly in Proto-Drem, minor variants can be heard, but are used so rarely, that those are considered archaic and obsolete forms.

 

Common forms:

 

…nà (not, no)                nà + VERB

…nà +POLAFF              nà (not, no) + POLITE

 

Archaic forms:

 

…(V)nâ                         (V) nà + VERB

…(V)nâ                         (V)nâ + POLITE

…(V)nâ… nà                 (V)nâ + POLITE + nà

 

 

Useful negative expressions:

 

These always start with nà (not, no), except for the few that due to usage are starting to be replaced by other words.

 

nà XXX XXX        Never mind!

nà XXX              No way!

nà XXX XXX        never!

nà XXX XXX        no problem! Without question

naXXX               (it’s) not good (morally speaking)

naXXX               (it’s) no good (speaking of something in a non-moral way)

XXX                   (It’s) nonsense/stupid

nà XXX              (It’s) irrelevant

XXX                   (It’s) useless, good for nothing*

NaXXX               (It’s) Impossible

 

XXX
2P+stupid + CNVA

He’s talking nonsense/stupidly

 

XXX

2P+INTJ.

He’s a good-for-nothing

 

* Losa is usually an interjection used for people; it is becoming more common to hear it spoken of objects as well.

 

Two further negatives: nâ and nà … nà:

 

nâ is a polite formal variant of nà (not, no) and the ‘wrap-around’ expression nâ + VERB PHRASE + nà (not, no)

 

 

XXX
XXX

He did it without hoping for any benefit.

 

Questions:

 

Yes/No questions:

 

A statement can be simple transformed into a question by adding a question particle. A common one is using nà (not, no) to do that.

 

‘Alorian food is expensive, no?’ or one can say the more common form of ‘Is Alorian food expensive?’

 

….na (not, no) Questions:

 

If the statement has more that 1 verb, the 1^st verb is the one used in responses.

 

Yes: VERB

 

No: nà (not, no) + VERB

 

XXX

Hot

Is it Hot?                      

 

XXX

Hot

Yes

 

XXX

NEG+Hot

Not Hot

 

də ? Questions:

 

dә? Is a confirmation seeking particle used in questions with assumptions and those that seek confirmation of that assumption. Responses are seen as the general polite particles used by men & women.

 

Yes: VERB + dә

 

No: nà (not, no) + VERB

 

XXX

To like+3PS+DEGREE+WhQA

He likes it a lot does he?

 

XXX

To Like+WhQA

Yes: Yes

 

XXX

No+To like

No: No

 

….dánə? (not, no) Questions:

 

These are for confirming the assumption in the statement. dánə is also seen in negative questions. Answers are formed as seen below.

 

Yes: dá

 

No: dánə (not, no)

 

XXX

To be situated at+mate+WhQA

Your mate is here, no?

 

dá / dánə

Yes/No

 

….j’ò? Questions:

 

This is the agreement seeking particle. To invite agreement is commonly seen. Also seen typically in conversation starting.

 

Yes: VERB + (Politeness affix)

 

No: nà (not, no) + VERB + (Politeness affix)

 

XXX

Hot+today+WhQA

It’s hot today, isn’t it?

 

XXX

Hot+POLITE

Yes

 

XXX

Not+Hot+POLITE

No

 

….bósə? Questions:

 

These are seen when a tough, firm question is asked, and all is required is a quick yes or no. The context and tone of voice is usually clear enough as to the type of question asked, and so the marker is commonly left off.

 

Yes: VERB

 

No: nà (not, no) + VERB

 

XXX

Go+or not+go

Are you going? (Or not)

 

XXX / XXX

Go/no+go

Yes/No

 

XXX

Bored+or not+bored

Is he bored? (Or not)

 

XXX / XXX

Bored/No+bored

Yes/No

 

If the question refers to the past or stative verbs, the style is slightly different

 

Yes: VERB + mùbә (already) or STATIVE VERB + (politeness particles)

 

No: nà (not, no) XXX (to get) + VERB or nà (not, no) + STATIVE VERB

 

XXX

To Tell+or+not+To Tell

Did you tell him? (Or not)

 

XXX / XXX

To Tell/Not+To tell

Yes/no

 

….mùbә? Question:

 

These ask if something has happened yet. The verb –mùbə- (already) is sometimes dropped in the question. This question is also asked if someone has a mate or has children.

 

Yes: VERB + mùbə (already)

 

No: nà (not, no) XXX (to get) + VERB

 

XXX

Eat+WhQA

Have you eaten yet?

 

XXX / XXX

Eat+WhQA/No+To get+To eat

Yes/ No, I haven’t.

 

XXX

Mate+CONVA+already

Are you mated?

 

XXX / XXX

Mate+CONVA+WhQA/ No+To get+Mate+CONVA

Yes/No, I’m not.

 

bô….bô? Questions:

 

Very similar to the one above, this one coveys ‘Do you want to…yet? or ‘Are you ready…yet?’.

 

bô + VERB + bô?

 

Yes: VERB or bô + VERB + bô

 

No: nà (not, no) + VERB

 

XXX

WhQA+eat+WhQA

Are you ready to eat yet?

 

XXX

To eat+WhQA

Yes

 

XXX

WhQA+No+To eat

No, not yet.

 

Wh- Questions:

 

Who? What? Why? Where? When? These styles of questions are commonly seen in. Some occur depending on context, a few have a fixed position. Many of these also function as an indirect pronoun (anyone, anything, etc.). The standard structure of these are with the verb at the beginning or what would be seen as VO S with the verb attached to the Object and the Subject floating in the rear.

 

Who? Questions:

 

The syntax usually shows two variations. Both though depend on the presence of a noun, usually acting as an subject, and therefore the normal ways would be changed. In the normal way, there is just a verb with a Politeness affix as shown on the first example below. The second example shows a verb attached to the noun, and then the Politeness affix comes after the noun. 

 

If VERB + POLITENESS AFFIX? Then the response would be VERB + PERSON.

 

If POLITENESS AFFIX + VERB PHRASE? Then the response would be PERSON + VERB.

 

XXX

To go+POLITE+WhQA

Who are you going with?

 

XXX

Go+friend+POLITE

I am going with a friend.

 

Whose? Questions:

 

NOUN + nè (of) + POLITENESS

 

XXX

Hut+WhQA+POLITE

Whose hut?

 

XXX

1PP+POSS

Our hut/Ours.

 

What? Questions:

 

VERB PHRASE + ŋg’a (what?). Note that this occurs before aspect markers and direction verbs.

 

XXX

To want+WhQA+2PS

What do you want?

 

This can also be used for an idiomatic expression

 

XXX

What’s up? (what-up)

 

Which? Questions:

 

VERB + NOUN + CLASSIFIER + sùlè (which?)

 

XXX

To want+spear+CL11+Which

Which spear do you want?

 

XXX

Spear+DEMPRO

I want that one.

 

Where? Questions:

 

‘Where’ questions are commonly heard in the region. There are three main groups of usage of these questions. The most commonly seen one is where the verb is at the head of the sentence. The sentences have the pronouns here following the verb which normally is seen preceding the verb. But here, the pronoun acts as an object, and just like normal, the verb attaches to the object.

 

VERB PHRASE + PRONOUN + mbé (where?), VERB PHRASE + mbé (where?), NOUN + mbé (where?).

 

A response follows VERB PHRASE + mbu(where?) + LOCATION

 

XXX

To come from+3PS

Where was he born?

 

XXX

To be situated at+3PS+WhQA+PLACE NAME

(He was born) in the village.

 

XXX

Spear+WhQA

Where is your spear?

 

XXX / XXX

Know+not/no+where

I don’t know where (it is).

 

For both questions and answer, mbé is normally dropped when the preceding verb is XXX (to go) or XXX (to come from, to be situated at, and to be born at).

 

XXX

Go+2PS

Where are you going?

 

XXX

Go+hunt

I’m going hunting

 

XXX

To come from+3PS

Where does he come from?

 

XXX

To be situated at+3PS+WhQA+PLACE NAME

(He comes from) the village

 

When? Questions:

 

VERB PHRASE + bә (when?), the answers are VERB PHRASE + TIME EXPRESSION. BV normally occurs at the end of the sentence, but can be at the beginning for emphatic effect. Like many of the question words, the SUBJ is usually dropped, since the question usually refers to a person already talked about in the conversation, and so is assumed.

 

XXX

Tell+WhQA

When are you going to tell her?

 

XXX

Tell+TIME

I will tell her tonight.

 

XXX

WhQA+tell

When are you going to tell her?

 

XXX

Tell+TIME

I will tell her tonight.

 

Why? Questions:

 

gàŋə (why?) + SUBJECT + bû (therefore) + VERB PHRASE

 

Negative why? Questions follow the same general pattern as seen above. The answers to both styles are the same as well.

 

XXX (because) + VERB PHRASE

 

XXX

Why+not+therefore+eat+2P

Why didn’t you eat it?

 

XXX

Because+DEG+spicy

Because it was too spicy.

 

XXX

Why+WhSA (why statement affix)

Why?

 

How? Questions: manner

 

How? Questions can be divided into two groups. Those that ask ‘How did it get there?’ and those of degree ‘How long is it?’ It is also seen with a how questions in ‘How are things?’ To more formal speakers, this is considered bad grammar, yet used by the younger Drem quite a bit.

 

VERB PHRASE + fòzə (how?)

 

XXX

Eat+WhQA

How did you eat it?

 

XXX

Thing+WhQA

How are things? (Asking without really anticipating an answer; see below for the other version)

 

How? Questions: Degree

 

Questions like ‘How tall?’ or ‘How long?’ (In time) are common. These questions require a specific numerical answer. Another style is when a numerical answer is not needed. The affix here is j’î.

 

VERB PHRASE + MEASURE WORD + gémә (how much?).

 

XXX

MSRW+Heavy+WhQA

How heavy is it?

 

VERB PHRASE + dènù (to what extent?)

 

XXX

[To be] bored+WhQA

How bored were you?

 

            XXX

            CMPA+bored

-          I was very bored.

 

How much? Questions:

 

The affix for ‘how much’ is very similar to ‘how many’. The main difference is that ‘how much’ is found at the end of sentences only, while the ‘how many’ affix can float and be located in several places.

 

VERB PHRASE + XXX (how much?). They always occur at the end of a sentence.

 

XXX

This+WhQA

How much is this?

 

Question son ‘how much per…’ have a slightly different feel

 

NOUN + CLASSIFIER + XXX (how much per?). Most of the time, the affix shows just a lengthened final vowel.

 

XXX

Slave+WhQA

How much per slave?

 

How many? Questions:

 

VERB + NOUN + NOUNCLASS + XXX (how many?). Answers are normally a numerical answer as seen below.

 

XXX

Have+Child+CL13+how many

How many children do you have?

 

            XXX

-          Three.

 

Wh- Questions: seeking advice:

 

VERB PHRASE + WH- QUESTION + bàŋ’ò

 

XXX

Go+WQA+ADVICE

When shall I/we go?

 

XXX

Do+WQA+ADVICE

What shall I/we do?

 

Wh- questions + d’ә

 

There are two ways the d’ә is used. First as anticipation particle, then in answers which reply to questions like ‘How are things?’

 

VERB PHRASE + Wh-QUESTION + d’ә anticipate a list of things, people, places, etc. The response is usually X + Y + d’ә (and) + Z

 

XXX

Talk+who+WhQA

Who (plural) did you talk to?

 

XXX

Talk+[AorPst] Name, Name and Name

I talked to Nog, Od and God

 

XXX

Thing+QUAFF

How are things? (Asking anticipating an answer. Note ‘la’ [thing] is used very loosely here)

 

XXX

Good+ADVICE+POLITE (note the seeking advice affix bàŋ’ò)

Fine./ I am doing fine.

 

How/what about….? Questions:

 

NOUN màbә (already)+ bә (to indicate that a state has been reached)

 

XXX

2PS+already+WhQA

And how/What about you?

 

XXX

Tomorrow+WhQA

And how/what about tomorrow?

 

Alternative questions:

 

-mâ- (or) links two phrases. To reply to this question, just use a politeness particle with the appropriate phrase. Note that ma can be used as an affix or particle when attaching phrases.

 

XXX

2PS+go+hunt or go+house

Do you want to go hunting or go home!

 

XXX

POLITE+house

Home please.

 

XXX

POLITE+hunt

Hunting please.

 

A contracted, simplified version of a ‘or not’ question is seen below

 

XXX

Go+(ImpNPst)+WhQA+not+go

Do you want to go or not

 

XXX

Hunt+(ImpNPst)+WhQA+not+hunt

Are you going to hunt it or not

 

Indirect questions:

 

Some questions are asked indirectly, and it is “re-asked” but in a different way. These are usually said between people away from the actual ‘asker’ of the original question. The syntax is simple with the Subject or Pronouns kept in so that it is clear who asked what of whom. A lot of times, Subjects and Objects are dropped, but not here. It is important to leave the pronouns in so that the information is clear. One thing is that in this, you see a demonstrative pronoun -mb’ə- [that] used. The pronoun is used as a simple affix here and has no usage as a noun in this way.

 

SUBJECT+ŋgbóbə (to ask) + mb’ә (that)[DEMPRO] + DIRECT QUESTION

 

Direct question:

 

XXX

2PS+(ImpNPst)+Come+night+WhQA

Will you be back tonight?

 

Indirect question:

 

XXX

3PS+[AorPst]+To ask+2PS To come+night+WhQA

He asked if I’d be back tonight.

 

Direct Question:

 

XXX

To want+spear+CL11+WhQA

Which spear do you want?

 

Indirect Question:

 

XXX

1PS+[AorPst]+Ask+3PS Want+spear+CL11+WhQA

I asked him which spear he wanted.