Bio Technology Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas including health care crop production and agriculture non food uses of crops . biodegradable plastics vegetable oil biofuels and environmental uses. For example one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products examples include beer and milk products. Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle treat waste clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities bioremediation and also to produce biological weapons.Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation.White biotechnologyalso known as industrial biotechnology is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardouspolluting chemicals examples using oxidoreducatses are given in Feng Applications of oxidoreductases Recent progress Ind. Biotechnol. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence or absence of certain agricultural chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
Biological Data
The term blue biotechnology has also been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology but its use is relatively rare.The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy.Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology and can be defined as conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules on a large scale. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas such as functional genomics structural genomics and proteomics and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects hisher body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the world pharmacology and genomics. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.. Development of tailormade medicines. Using pharmacogenomics pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailormade drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
RNA and DNA Ribonucleic acid or RNA is a nucleic acid consisting of many nucleotides that form a polymer. Each nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base a ribose sugar and a phosphate. RNA plays several important roles in the processes of translating genetic information from deoxyribonucleic acid DNA into proteins. One type of RNA acts as a messenger between DNA and the protein synthesis complexes known as ribosomes others form vital portions of the structure of ribosomes act as essential carrier molecules for amino acids to be used in protein synthesis or change which genes are active.
DNA stands for deoxyribonucleic acid while RNA stands for ribonucleic acid. RNA is very similar to DNA but differs in a few important structural details RNA is usually single stranded while DNA is usually double stranded. RNA nucleotides contain ribose while DNA contains deoxyribose a type of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom and RNA uses the nucleotide uracil in its composition instead of thymine which is present in DNA. RNA is transcribed from DNA by enzymes called RNA polymerases and is generally further processed by other enzymes some of them guided by noncoding RNAs.RNA is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone and four different nucleotide bases adenine guanine cytosine and uracil. The first three are the same as those found in DNA but in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil as the base complementary to adenine. This base is also a pyrimidine and is very similar to thymine. In DNA however uracil is readily produced by chemical degradation of cytosine so having thymine as the normal base makes detection and repair of such incipient mutations more efficient. Thus uracil is appropriate for RNA where quantity is important but lifespan is not whereas thymine is appropriate for DNA where maintaining sequence with high fidelity is more critical.There are also numerous modified bases and sugars found in RNA that serve many different roles. Pseudouridine in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond and ribothymidine T are found in various places most notably in the loop of tRNA. Another notable modified base is hypoxanthine a deaminated guanine base whose nucleoside is called inosine. Inosine plays a key role in the Wobble Hypothesis of the genetic code. There are nearly other naturally occurring modified nucleosides of which pseudouridine and nucleosides with Omethylribose are by far the most common. The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood.
Observed DNA
However it is notable that in ribosomal RNA many of the posttranslational modifications occur in highly functional regions such as the peptidy transferase center and the subunit interface implying that they are important for normal function.The most important structural feature of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a hydroxyl group at the position of the ribose sugar. The presence of this functional group enforces the Cendo sugar conformation as opposed to the Cendo conformation of the deoxyribose sugar in DNA that causes the helix to adopt the Aform geometry rather than the Bform most commonly observed in DNA. This results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove. A second consequence of the presence of the hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule that is not involved in formation of a double helix it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone.
Ribosomal RNA
DNA is a long polymer made from repeating units called nucleotides. The DNA chain istoÅngströms widetonanometres and one nucleotide unit isÅngstroms . nanometres long. Although each individual repeating unit is very small DNA polymers can be enormous molecules containing millions of nucleotides. For instance the largest human chromosome chromosome numberismillion base pairs long.In living organisms DNA does not usually exist as a single molecule but instead as a tightlyassociated pair of molecules. These two long strands entwine like vines in the shape of a double helix. The nucleotide repeats contain both the segment of the backbone of the molecule which holds the chain together and a base which interacts with the other DNA strand in the helix. In general a base linked to a sugar is called a nucleoside and a base linked to a sugar and one or more phosphate groups is called a nucleotide. If multiple nucleotides are linked together as in DNA this polymer is referred to as a polynucleotide.The backbone of the DNA strand is made from alternating phosphate and sugar residues. The sugar in DNA is deoxyribose which is a pentose five carbon sugar. The sugars are joined together by phosphate
groups that form phosphodiester bonds between the third and fifth carbon atoms of adjacent sugar rings. These asymmetric bonds mean a strand of DNA has a direction. In a double helix the direction of the nucleotides in one strand is opposite to their direction in the other strand. This arrangement of
DNA strands is called antiparallel. The asymmetric ends of DNA strands are referred to as the five prime and three prime ends. One of the major differences between DNA and RNA is the sugar with deoxyribose being replaced by the alternative pentose sugar ribose in RNA.The DNA double helix is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the bases attached to the two strands. The four bases found in DNA are adenine abbreviated A cytosine C guanine G and thymine T. These four bases are shown below and are attached to the sugarphosphate to form the complete nucleotide as shown for adenosine monophosphate.These bases are classified into two types adenine and guanine
are fused five and sixmembered heterocyclic compounds called purines while cytosine and thymine are sixmembered rings called pyrimidines. A fifth pyrimidine base called uracil U usually takes the place of thymine in RNA and differs from thymine by lacking a methyl group on its ring. Uracil is
not usually found in DNA occurring only as a breakdown product of cytosine but a very rare exception to this rule is a bacterial virus called PBS that contains uracil in its DNA. In contrast following synthesis of certain RNA molecules a significant number of the uracils are converted to thymines by the enzymatic addition of the missing methyl group. This occurs mostly on structural and enzymatic RNAs like transfer RNAs and ribosomal RNA.