In the late 1700's Europeans had explored, and were familiar with the coast of Africa, but they were still not satisfied. Therefore, they started exploring the inner parts of Africa.By the late 1700's Europeans had explored most of Africa south of the Sahara Desert.

Europeans were familiar with the lower Nile, but they did not know where the source of the river was. Then in 1770, a Scottish explorer named ,James Bruce, discovered the source of the Bule Nile in Ethiopia.

One of the biggest mysteries was the Niger river. They had heard about it from the ancient writers, but no one knew where it began, where it ended, or which way it flowed. In 1796, Mungo Park, another Scottish explorer, found the Niger near Segou, which is now Mali.

In 1776, America declared its independence from Britain. This has been known as the birthday of the United States.

The Declaration of Independence is the actual document they sent to Britain, and is a very famous peace of writing. It listed the reasons that they should be able to form their own country. All these reasons are focused on the idea of Britain unfairly taxing the colonies. First, Britain forced them to but tax stamps that were placed on playing cards, newspapers, diplomas, and many other legal documents. The colonists resisted this, and soon the act was repealed in 1766. Then, Britain placed taxes or duties, on imported goods. The colonists were outraged, and reacted by boycotting all imported goods. This hurt the British business badly, and in 1770, the removed the duties on all items, except tea. Still, the colonists were outraged, and reacted to the tea tax in Boston, by dumping the tea into the harbor. This became known as the Boston Tea Party.

Most of the colonists wanted to remain members of the empire; they felt they owed allegiance only to the British Crown, not the Parliament. In 1775, one year before the Declaration of Independence was signed; most colonists still did not favor declaring independence. In June, they sent one last letter to the king about their complaints, but he ignored it, which made more colonists faithful to the idea of independence.

Edmund Burke was a famous British statesman. He was born in Dublin, Ireland. He influenced the history of Britain and many other countries.

He was a productive author, and an effective speaker. He wrote many books, and other things. One book he wrote in 1756 was called Philosophical Inquiry Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and the Beautiful, which was a book on aesthetics. He also wrote many essays on politics. He also wrote Thoughts on the Cause of the Present Discontents in 1770.

He also believed strongly in his opinion. For instance, he believed that the colonists should be able to have the use of all the rights of the British citizens. He even wrote a book on this in 1774 called On American Taxation. He also delivered a speech called Speech on Conciliation with America. Another thing he believed strongly against was the slave trade. Also, he disagreed with the French Revolution. He disagreed with its injustice to individuals, attacks on religion, and attempts to build a completely new social order. He even wrote a book on this called Reflections on the Revolution in France in 1790. This book greatly influenced British policy and opinion.

He also tried to limit the power of British Royalty. Another thing, he achieved fame in his attempt to improve British administration in Britain.

The first rules of Cricket were made up in 1774, and the game was a gigantic success. Later, in 1787, the Marylebone Cricket Club revised the rules. The rules are quite complicated, but once understood the game is quite simple.

The object of the game is to score as many points as you can. The team with the most points at the end of the innings wins.

Cricket is a bat and ball game, with two teams of eleven players on each team. It is played on a 400 to 500 foot field with two wickets made up of three wooden stumps in the middle of the field. Each wicket is placed 66 feet apart, and both have two sticks called bails placed atop of them in the grooves. One-team fields, while the other bats. One person on the fielding team is picked to be the bowler. He stands near one wicket, and runs at the other wicket while bowling the ball at the other wicket without bending his elbow. Normally the ball bounces once in front of the wicket. Then a batsman (called the striker) standing at the other wicket hits the ball with a flat-fronted bat. If he doesn't hit the ball, and it goes by him and knocks a bail off the wicket, the striker is out. If the striker hits the ball, and it is caught in the air by a fielder he is out. If he hits the ball into the field, he and a teammate called the nonstriker, who is at the other wicket, try to score a run. In order to score a run, the striker and the nonstriker must run to the opposite wicket before a fielder can knock off a bail with the ball. If a fielder knocks a bail off before both batsmen successfully make it around the wicket, then the nonstriker is out. They may run around the wickets as many times as they want, as long as they are safe. Hundreds of runs can even be scored in one turn.

Several years ago, the founding fathers were trying to choose a way to elect the president. They had many ideas, and each idea had its pros and cons. The first idea was for Congress to choose the president. However, this idea was rejected because many felt that it would cause much corruption, and would be too difficult a decision for Congress to make. Another idea was to have the State legislatures choose the president. Again, this idea was rejected. They were afraid that there would be deals, bribes, and that the election would be set up. The third idea was to have the population vote for the candidates, and the candidate with the majority would win. This idea was also rejected, because transportation and communication was very slow. Also, the cities and states were barely connected, so it would be hard for the population to learn about the candidates and what each one stood for. Finally, the last idea was to have a college of electors choose the president. There will be more pros and cons on the Electoral College and direct election later in our presentation.

To choose, the founding fathers had to consider what the public wanted. The multitude did not want political parties or national campaigns, and they were afraid that one branch of government or the government itself, would become too strong, or have too much power. Many people thought that political parties were evil and mischievous, mainly because of the ideas of many British political thinkers such as Henry St John Bolingbroke. He once said "There is no complaint which hath been more constantly in the mouths, no grief hath lain more heavily at the hearts of all good men, than those about our national divisions; about the spirit of party, which inspires animosity and breeds rancour; which hath so often destroyed our inward peace, weakened our national strength, and sullied our glory abroad." or in other words, there is no bigger grief than the political parties, they encourage evil, destroy the peace, weaken the nation's strength, and dirty our glory. Also, they did not want national campaigns, because they thought that the candidates should seek the voters, and not for the voters to seek the candidates.

Finally, after much arguing, the founding fathers choose to elect the president by a college of electors. The idea of the College of Electors or Electoral College was to have the most informed and knowledged individuals from every state to choose the president, besides the candidate's political party or their state origin, and only on their views and plans. The idea of the Electoral College came from the Roman Catholic Church who would choose a College of Cardinals to select the pope. First, the adult male citizens of Rome were split into groups of 100, according to their wealth. Every group of 100 was allowed 1 vote against or for the proposal.

Johann Wolfgang Goethe was born on August 28, 1749. He was a famous German writer, and is also known as a scientist. He was born in Frankfurt am Main into a wealthy middle-class family. His father even educated all his children himself. Among the things he studied were, foreign languages, literature, and fine arts. Later on he also studied, geology, mineralogy, botany, and zoology.

Goethe is best known for his lyrical poems, but also for his plays, and novels. One of his most famous poems was FAUST. This poem eventually became one of his famous plays also. It was about a man named Faust who desires complete knowledge, an unlimited experience of life, and self-perfection. Guided by the devil along his journey, he never finds full satisfaction. Later, God, inspite of his guilt and pride, saves him. The devil then lost a wager for his soul because Faust continually sought perfection.

From 1765-1768, he was especially noted for his gallant and playful poems. Also, during his younger years, he wrote the original form of Faust, then called Urfaust. Furthermore, he wrote several satires, plays, and love poems. He further wrote many philosophic hymns on art, nature, and the mission of the poetic genius.

In 1775, he moved to Weimar, which was his home for the rest of his life. While he was there his work in agriculture, military affairs, finance, and mining.

Francisco Goya, born in 1746, painted the fabulous painting "The Family of King Charles IV" (seen above) as well as many others. Many art critics and lovers consider this painting one of the most extravagant paintings of all time.

He is a Spanish painter born near the town of Saragossa. His full name is Francisco Jose de Goya y Lucientes. In 1774, he was approved painter to the Royal Tapestry Factory. He liked to stress the art elements line and color. Also, his paintings were realistic most of the time. Goya became ill in 1792, and eventually he lost his hearing. This factor caused his paintings to become more imaginative and personal. His paintings were normally religious too.

Also, many other things influenced his work. One event was Napoleon's invasion of Spain, which inspired some of his most powerful paintings. These paintings became known as The Disasters of War.

In the late seventeen hundreds, many countries expelled the Jesuits. The first country that expelled Jesuits was Portugal in 1759. Then, France in 1764, and Spain in 1767 also expelled the Jesuits. Then, in 1773, Pope Clement XIV was pressured from many Catholic rulers to expel the Jesuits from all countries. He made the law, but it was never fully effective. Many countries, such as Russia disobeyed the order, and allowed Jesuits to live there. Also, the Gallicans did not follow the pope's rule, and were not obedient to at all. Furthermore, the Jansenists said that it violated human freedom.

There were several reasons the Jesuits were expelled. First, many Catholic rulers were jealous of their influence. Also, some people accused them of having too much power and wealth.

In my speech, I will be talking about fashion in the 19th century, things that women did in their leisure time, and some various ethnic groups.

Fashion for women in the 19th century was very plain. Once they moved west they realized that they needed more practical clothing. Dresses were popular, and since it was considered improper to show ankles or legs, the dresses were long. Many women had two or three dresses. One for every day, a spare, and one for church. Since the dresses were so long, they would drag on the ground while working outside, and many homes had earth floors, so they would get dirty inside too. Eventually, the dresses were modified to be more practical, but still not show their ankles. Culottes, which were wide-legged trousers that looked like a skirt, came out. These were a success. They did not drag on the ground, and did not get dirty as easily. Also, women could now ride astride (one leg on both sides of the horse) which made chores dramatically easier. Another idea was to wear loose trousers, with a short skirt over the top. These were called bloomers. Bloomers were still considered indecent though, because the idea of women wearing a short skirt was not accepted. Other women who worked on a farm or ranch all day did not wear dresses. They wore pants, a shirt with a pocket, leather caps, a bandana, and a wide-brimmed hat. This made it a lot easier for the women. Also, many of the clothes were hand maid, since machines had just started to make clothing. Overall, fashion was practical and plainly made.

Women did not have much leisure time, and when they did they did things to help out the household. They sewed, quilted, and spinning. Some made items and gave them to friends, family, and neighbors. Sometimes they would invite their friends, and work on a project together. This way it went must faster. Many women also liked to read and write. Many kept journals. Some wrote to family back East. They read magazines, newspapers, and novels. These were very rare though, so they read them more than once. Women did not have much leisure time, and when they did their activities were beneficial to the household.

Although there were many white women moving west, there were a few African American women moving west also. Most of them came with their owners and once they reached California, they were free. Many of the owners did not know California was a state that prohibited slavery. Some ran away or bought their freedom from their owners and saw the west as a new beginning. Others were released from their masters, and a few were granted their freedom through state legislatures. During this time many slaves from the West were freed for various reasons.

Another minority group in the U.S. is the Native Americans. They are truly the first women of the west. They had tough times, because of the wars that the men were fighting. They had to cook, sew, clean, take care of the children, and sometimes they had to find the food if the men were at a war. Also, many tribes did not stay in one place, so the women had to pack up their belongings and walk to their new destination. Also, the government decided to "help" the Native Americans. They forced young girls away from their tribed and sent them to an English-speaking school. These schools were very much like a boarding school. Here the girls would learn how to run a home like the pioneers did. Once they left they were not accepted by society, and often not by their own tribes. Ever since European contact the Native Americans' lives have been hard, and with settlers stealing their land and game it was not much easier.

One famous African American woman Biddy or Bridget Mason traveled with her Mormon owner to Utah, and then to California, which was admitted to the Union as a free state. Five years after moving to California, Biddy petitioned to the court to earn her freedom. Ten years later she was one of the first colored women to buy her own land in Los Angeles. She became a midwife and a nurse. Much of the money she earned she donated to poor people of all races, black churches, and she paid grocery bills for the homeless. Along with her son-in-law they found the First African Methodist Episcopal Church, which was the city's first African American church. Biddy Mason is a remarkable woman, she donated her life to help out the less fortunate.

Susan La Flesche Picotte was the first Native American woman to become a physician. She graduated at the top of her class at the Women's Medical College of Pennsylvania. She was a member of the Omaha tribe, and she improved medical care at the Omaha reservation in Nebraska. In 1913, she established a hospital on the reservation, that was eventually named for Picotte after she died. She raised the standards for her tribe, and for all Native Americans.

Earth: the only planet that we know that carries life. There is a lot of information that we now have, but there are still many mysteries we may never solve. We shall attempt to educate you in some of the things we do know about the Earth, and it's relevance in space.

Here are some common known facts: the rotation, which is one full circle around on the Earth's axis is 23 hours: 56 minutes: and 4.09 sec. Also, the revolution, which is one orbit around the sun, is 365.244 days.

The Earth is 7,927 miles wide and the third planet from the sun. Although there are many man-made satellites, there is only 1 genuine satellite, the moon. The Earth is in the Terrestrial group affiliation, which means it is solid rock, and can be walked upon and rock samples can be collected.

Earth is the only planet known to have flowing water. Temperature on Earth for the most part remains constant, and does not abruptly change. The temperature range is 89°C-57.7°or -128°F- 136°F.

From 8000 BC. to 4000 BC. the first inhabitants settled in Côte d’Ivoire. Later on, in 1400, France began to trade Ivory, therefore giving it the name Ivory Coast. In 1893, France officially claimed Ivory Coast as a French colony. Later on, in 1960, Ivory Coast became independent of France. The new country, République de Côte d’Ivoire, adopted a new constitution.

Sixty-six years ago, Abidjan was selected as Ivory Coast’s capital, and still is today. In 1983, Yamoussoukro became the National capital along with Abidjan.

Located in Yamoussoukro is Our Lady of Peace, the largest Christian church in Africa, and one of the largest in the world. In Abidjan, hôtel Ivorians a major attraction featuring luxurious accommodations. This magnificent hotel has 17 restaurants, several swimming pools, seven -hundred and fifty rooms, a casino, golf course, and the only ice-skating rink in Africa.

Bandama Rouge, Kamoé, Sassandra, and Cavally are Ivory Coast’s four major rivers. Bandama Rouge is the longest river stretching five-hundred miles. About only forty miles of each can be traveled though, because of rapids and falls. Other rivers in Côte d’Ivoire include Bagoé, Sankareni, and Bandama Blanc.The country’s two lakes are Kossou and Taabo Lake. Mt. Nimba and Mt. Tonkou are the two major mountains. Mt. Nimba is the highest point in Côte d’Ivoire reaching 5,748 feet! Other mountains are Mt. Kahové, Mt. Kopé, and Mt. Niénokové. Côte d’Ivoire is generally square shaped. The eastern coast is a sandy bar that stretches into Guinea. The western has small, rocky cliffs. Behind the coastal strip lies deep lagoons and tropical rainforests. In the northern part of the country is the savanna, a grassland with scattered trees. In the west-central area are the Guinea highlands that have many of the mountains there. Many animals live in Ivory Coast. Some animals are antelope, wild hogs, gazelles, lions, crocodiles, elephants, hippopotamus, cobras, green mambas, pythons, bush fowl, quail, partridges, bulbuls, hornbills, ducks, herons, deadly tse-tse flies, mosquitoes, termites, chimpanzees, buffaloes, and bushbacks just to name a few. The climate in Côte d’Ivoire is pretty average for being close to the equator The average rainfall per year is 85 inches. The average temperature is 93 degrees F. It is just like summer is for us, but all year round!

The population in Côte d’Ivoire is 15,800,000. 25% of Ivorians are Muslim, 10% are Christian, and 65% practice their own local ancient religion. The official language is French, but only educated Ivorians speak it. Another language that requires an education in Ivory Coast is English. Most Ivorians can speak two languages, their own ethnic language and Dyula. Dyula is the language of trade, and is used in the marketplace. In leisure time they enjoy to do many arts and crafts, but they do not know many sports. They make vine bridges, hand-woven cloth, wood carvings, jewelry, masks, statues, pottery, painting, and fashioning objects of gold. They also dance and sing to both modern and ancient songs. They even sing to songs in other languages.

The people are generally black Africans. They suffer from wide spread sanitation problems, malnutrition, and they easily contract disease, malaria, and other parasitic diseases, pneumonia, tuberculosis, yellow fever, and AIDS. The life expectancy literacy rate for the average man is 55%. The average literacy rate for women is 35%. The average number of children who go to elementary school is 75%. The average number of children who attend high school/middle school is 20%. People in the city travel by car, taxi, bus, train, or plane. Other forms of transportation for goods are passenger liners, train, plane, and freighters. Their houses range from traditional grass-covered houses to modern apartment complexes and homes. Most Ivorians like to eat spicy food. They also enjoy rice, fish, foutou, baked bananas, and bobotie.

Many people make a living by producing oil, cloth making, produce soap, food, cigarettes making, chemicals, automobiles, farmers, miners, and foresters.Some agricultural crops are cocoa, coffee, rubber, pineapple, bananas, palm oil fruit, coconuts, cotton, sugarcane, yams, plantains, cassava, taro, rice, maize, sorghum, millet, beans, and many other vegetables. Some manufactured products are food, wood, cloth, chemicals, cement, lumber, furniture, plywood, and corrugated steel. Some minerals that are mined for are bauxite, cobalt, copper, diamonds, manganese, and nickel.

Ivory Coast’s main unit of money is the franc. Some holidays the celebrate are ......

 
Holiday                    Date of Celebration 
New Year’s Day                    January 1st 
Labor Day                         May 1st 
Independence Day            December 7th 
All Saints’ Day                 November 1st 
Christmas                     December 25th

One strange holiday is Independence Day. The actually day they got their independence was August 7th, but it is celebrated on December 7th.

“I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.” This quote was said through the loud booming voice of Doctor Martin Luther King Junior in his famous “I have a dream” speech. He sought peace, freedom, and equality among all people.

First, to know what he did, one must know the basic information about his life. He was born on January 19, 1929. Martin attended several schools, such as the All Black Younge Street Elementary School, Moorehouse College, and Boston College. He got a degree in theology also. Martin Luther had trained to be a Baptist minister. He would then go on to marry Coretta Scott on June 18, 1953. Eventually, they would have four children.

Second, one should know his accomplishments. It all started when Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat on the bus to a white man. This led to a bus boycott that took a whole year, but in the end blacks could sit where they wanted on the bus. He also hosted sit ins, where they would sit in the restaurants, and not get up till they were served. He also did marches; one of his most famous marches was the one to Washington D.C. in 1963. When they had reached Washington D.C., he gave his most famous speech, the “I have a dream” speech. In December of 1964 he won a Nobel Peace Prize. Despite all his accomplishments there were still people who did not like him. This led to the assassination of Martin Luther King Junior on April 4, 1968 at the Lorraine Motel.

Last, I will tell you how I would commit to his dream. I would work on Child Labor, which is a major problem in Asia, especially poor countries. I would be the president of the Non-Violent Child Labor Organization or NVCLO, and would use Martin Luther’s non-violent ways to solve this problem. First, I would start boycotts against companies that hire children. Then, I would help start strikes against these same companies. The lack of workers, and money would force them to either stop hiring children, raising their pay, and/or make the working conditions better. If these tactics did not work, I would start marches, where several women, men, and children would march across the countries to the companies, or government.

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. had an excellent point in his “I Have a Dream” speech, especially when he said “…and when we allow freedom to ring, when we let it ring from every village and every hamlet, from every state and every city, we will be able to join hands and in the words of that old Negro spiritual, Free at Last! Free at Last! Thank God Almighty we are free at last!” One day, everyone, no matter what their appearance or beliefs, should be able to join hands and respect each other for their decisions and appearance.

Just as Dr. King Jr. had a dream, I have a dream too. My dream is that one-day, we will all be able to respect each other for whom we are. When Martin said “I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin, but by the content of their character.”, he was not just talking about their skin color, but about their gender, beliefs, looks, etc. Even if you dislike or do not agree with someone you should respect him or her, because everyone has a right to their opinion. I believe that if everyone would stop putting people down and stop calling each other names, we would not have so many problems today in our society.

The Oregon Territory covers the present-day states of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and parts of present-day Montana, Wyoming, and Upper Canada.

The first people to arrive in Oregon Country were, of course, the Indians. They had lived there for many years, until the Europeans arrived. In 1573, one of the first European explorers to discover the Oregon Territory was Bartolome Ferrelo. Also, in 1579, Sir Francis Drake supposedly was the first to touch the coast of Oregon. Many of the first explorers arrived to Oregon Country by sea. They would sail up the coast of California and find Oregon Country, which was thought to be difficult and impossible. About, one century later, many trappers and traders moved to Oregon Country, because the dense forests were filled with beavers.

Later on, many countries claimed Oregon. Spain, Russia, Great Britain, and America all had claimed they owned the land. In 1819, Spain signed a treaty, dropping their claim to Oregon Country. Thomas Jefferson sent an expedition known as the Lewis and Clark expedition to explore and investigate the land and find an all-water route to the new lands. Although, they did not find the all-water route, the expedition was very successful. They found information on the Indians, animals, lands, climate, etc. It was enough to persuade the president into becoming interested in the land.

There were many reasons that people moved west. Many were looking for opportunity and a new life. Many of the first people to migrate west were trappers, traders, and missionaries. Missionaries moved there to try to convert the Indians to Christianity. Also, some people wanted to move away from the crowded city life and enjoy spacious country life. Others were just looking for something new, and Oregon was certainly different. Since Oregon Country offered cheap land, fertile soil, and plenty of game many people immigrated to the new land.

Many people got to Oregon by traveling the Oregon Trail. Every spring people would travel, often by boat or train, to Independence, MO. When the families got there, they would buy supplies for the long journey west. Once a group had gathered, they would select a leader, who was often a trapper, trader, or frontiersmen. Once they were ready, they would hurry to travel the two-thousand-mile journey by winter. Thousands of people traveled this trail in the nineteenth century.

In 1843, the government decided to entice people to move to Oregon Country by initiating the Organic Act. This act allowed 640 acres per every male adult and 160 acres for each child. In 1850, The Donation Land law promoted growth and development in Oregon. This law said that any American male citizen over the age of 18 who settled in Oregon before December of 1850 would get 320 acres of land. Also, his wife could get 320 acres of her own land. To receive this land, a man had to reclaim the land for four years. From December 1850 to December 1855, a settler had to be at least 21 to receive land, and he would only get 160 acres, and his wife could receive the same amount. The idea was to populate Oregon country and outnumber the Great Britons so that they would be forced to give up the land. This is also how the slogan Fifty-four forty or fight came about. The Americans wanted to own all of the Oregon Territory up to the fifty-fourth degree parallel and forty feet, and many were willing to go to war to own all of it.

Many people thought that the U.S. might have to go to war to win the territory. However, in 1846, the two countries agreed on a compromise. Oregon Country would be divided at the forty-ninth parallel, and the U.S. would receive all the land to the south. In 1843, another Organic Act was established. It said that the Indians had the title to Oregon. Two years later, a new law was made that told the Indians to move east of the Cascade Mountains. In 1848 Oregon officially became a territory. For a while, Oregonians did not have the right to vote in Congress, or for President. In 1853, the eastern part of the Oregon Territory was split apart and became the Washington Territory. Many people wanted Oregon to become a state, and more importantly a slave-free state. In one election, slavery was voted against 7,727 to 2,645. Although Oregonians did not want slaves, they did not want free blacks to live there. However, in 1865, after the Union won the civil war, blacks were allowed to live in Oregon. On February 14, 1859, Oregon became the thirty-third state.

One of the biggest reasons that the United States wanted to own Oregon so bad was Manifest Destiny. This was the belief that America should expand across North America. Also, the land was rich in natural resources and minerals. Plus, Americans wanted to expand from “sea to shining sea.” There were many reasons why Americans wanted Oregon Country.

James K. Polk was a very important person. He dramatically helped America reach its present border. He was president during the greatest period of territorial growth. The main reason that Polk was elected in 1844 was because of Manifest Destiny. A major issue back then was whether to annex Texas and if we should go to war with Great Britain over Oregon Country. He said that America already owned Texas and Oregon by right, and this led to his victory. When elected, he changed his mind, he did not want to go to war with Great Britain. Since war with Mexico was very near, he quickly signed a treaty to end the dispute over Oregon Country. Overall, he made some very good and important decisions, which made America what it is today.

There have been many inventions and developments to the automobile since the first automobile in 1769. Some of the greatest inventions and developments have been the self starter, windshield, automatic transmission, airtight tires, hydraulic brakes, gearbox, battery, suspension, safety features, electronics, exhaust system, fuel injection. Although there are many important automobile features, developments, and inventions, we feel that these are the top twelve, not necessarily in that order. I will be telling you about three of these twelve, the airtight tire, hydraulic brakes, and the exhaust system.

AIRTIGHT TIRE

Tires have come a long way since the first tire. The first tires were completely made out of rubber. They even had large rubber knobs for treads. These huge knobs prevented the vehicle from sliding on slippery roads. Although these tires never punctured, they were extremely heavy, and have a very bumpy ride. The next tires were first used on bicycles. They were much smaller, and had smaller knobs too. These were smoother, but had poor traction. Many of the early solid rubber tires skidded terribly, so manufacturers tried leather coverings and different tread patterns. What they made was much similar to modern tires.

Tires now began to have inner tubes. They would be pumped up to high pressures to keep the tires on the rim. Newer tires were shorter, and lower pressure. Lower pressured tires gave a smoother ride. Modern tubeless tires have airtight wheel rims, which do not require inner tubes. Today’s tires are much shorter and wider, so that a bigger area of tread hits the ground. The more tread that touches the road, the better the control and grip the tire has. A good tread quickly lets water rush out from the middle of the wheel.

Without tires, an automobile would not run. The tires play an important role in a car. Today’s tires, along with suspension, give a very smooth ride. You hardly ever notice bumps etc. in the road. Today’s tires are also very easy to change. There are even tires that liquid seal small holes, rips and tears until you can get to a mechanic or convenient place to stop. Tires are very important to a car.

EXHAUST SYSTEM

The exhaust system is a very important part of the automobile. It directs exhaust gases and fumes from the engine. It also drastically reduces the noise produced by the engine, and other parts of the automobile. The most important job that it does is preventing the gases from entering the passenger compartment. If these gases gather in large amounts, they can be harmful. That is why the exhaust system cannot contain any leaks or vibrations of any kind. The exhaust system has a very important job.

There is two different styles of exhaust systems: the single exhaust system and the dual exhaust system. The single exhaust system has one major path, and is the most common. It also takes up the least amount of space. On the other hand, the dual has many different pathways, and takes up more space, because it contains more exhaust pipes. Other than these differences, the two styles are very much the same. The basic process of how this system works is pretty simple. First, the burned gases exit the engine through many exhausts ports and pipes. Then, they go through the exhaust manifold. Then, they go through the exhaust pipe. From there, they go through the catalytic converter. Next, it goes through the muffler, and in many newer and expensive vehicles the gases then go through the resonator (which is sometimes placed before the muffler). Finally, it leaves the vehicle through the tailpipe. This is the basic path that the gases will follow.

Now I will tell you the individual jobs and responsibilities of each individual part of the exhaust system. The basic parts are: exhaust manifold, exhaust pipes, catalytic converter, muffler, resonator, and tail pipe. The exhaust manifold directs exhaust gases from the exhaust ports to the remainder of the exhaust system. The exhaust pipes are any pipes in the exhaust system except the tail pipe. They connect the exhaust manifold, muffler, and resonator to each other. Each exhaust pipe is double-walled. This means that there is one pipe inside another to help reduce the noise. The catalytic converter cleans the gases. This helps prevent backup, which can damage a car. The muffler reduces noise. There are two different types, the reverse-flow and the straight through. The reverse-flow contains a variety of chambers to reverse the gas flow, which reduces the noise. Small openings and slits along the sides of the muffler allow sound waves to cancel each other out. The baffles, which are a smaller part of the muffler, absorb and dampen more of the sound. Most of the reverse-flow mufflers have at least one small hole to allow for liquids to drip out. The other type is the straight-through muffler. It has one pipe with many holes and slits surrounded by a steel wool or fiberglass packing. This absorbs the noise it requires less space, but the steel wool or fiberglass often breaks up, which requires the muffler to be replaced much sooner than the reverse-flow. Resonators are parts that additionally reduce noise. They are as a rule used in more expensive cars. They are small mufflers, which can be used on the reverse-flow or the straight through muffler. They are placed at the end of the exhaust systems. Typically, they are found after the muffler, but newer vehicles are placing them before the muffler. The last part to the exhaust system is the tailpipe. It allows the gases to escape the vehicle.

The exhaust system is very important to a car. Without it, driving a car could be deadly, and very noisy. Through these few paragraphs you can see why we chose it as one of the top twelve inventions and developments.

HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Hydraulic brakes also play an important role in a car. Without them, it would be near impossible to stop even a slow car. The hydraulics in brakes intensifies the energy that is applied when you push the pedal on a car. These are not actually the brakes. Most modern automobiles use disc brakes and drum brakes. Before I go into detail about these two brakes, I will give you a short history on brakes.

The very first brakes were very unsafe and unstable. They caused cars to pull to one side, because they released uneven pressure on the wheels. A lever usually controlled brakes in early times. One of the very first brakes was the sprag brake. When the driver pulled the lever, a sharp stick would fall down and dig into the ground. They were very dangerous. Then there were wraparound brakes. There was a band wrapped around the axle, and when the driver pulled the lever, the band would tighten around the axle causing the wheel to not move. These were not very efficient either, because the average person was not strong enough to pull the brake lever. This brings us up to one of the early forms of the brakes we use today.

Most modern cars contain disc brakes and drum brakes. Disc brakes are normally used for the front wheels. It greatly resembles a bicycle brake. When the pedal is pushed, two pads are pushed against a disk that is inside the wheel. The pads cause the wheels to slow down. The other types of brakes we use are the drum brakes. These brakes are normally used for the back, emergency, and parking break. Two crescent shaped pads or shoes are placed on the inside of a tire. When a force is applied, driver pushes pedal, the shoes are pushed outwards, causing them to rub against a drum that lines the inside of the tire. When the shoes rub against the drum, the tire slows down. There is one more brake that is used. Hydraulic brakes are used to increase the energy put in when the driver steps on the pedal. Hydraulics is the application of the principles of liquids in motion. For this energy increaser, there are at least two pistons. Once the pedal is pushed, the first and smaller piston is forced down, therefore, pushing the liquid or brake fluid down a series of pipes to a larger piston. This larger piston multiplies the force that is applied to the brakes.

Without brakes, especially hydraulic brakes, driving would be very dangerous. This is why we have chosen hydraulic brakes as one of the top twelve.

Airtight tires, hydraulic brakes, and the exhaust system are very important to a car. They have tremendously changed, and are still changing to this day. These three parts are efficient for their uses, but I am sure there is some improvement that will be made to tires, brakes, and exhaust system in the years to come. I have learned a lot about the automobile the past few weeks. The automobile will forever be changing.

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