Today it is not politically correct to combine a belief in Christianity with your work, especially if you are a scientist. The reigning paradigm for science today is to follow what is called "methodological naturalism." This means that scientists adopt the viewpoint that the universe runs by chance, impersonal forces. If there is a god, maybe - just maybe, he caused the Big Bang and that is it. The Christian God has been pushed out of science because he is more than just the cause of the Big Bang. God expects moral behavior and responsible actions from humankind. Further, He interacts with His creation and sometimes "violates" His so-called "laws of nature" by doing what we call miracles. Modern scientific man wants nothing of this - he wants to be his own god. He wants to say what is right and what is wrong.

However, that was not always the case, especially during my period of specialization, the Scientific Revolution. During that time scientists knew and believed the Bible and combined their research and Christianity. This also happened after the Scientific Revolution. George Washington Carver is but one of many examples of Christians who were scientists. I will discuss just a few of them.

William Harvey (1578-1657) made the discovery of the circulation of the blood in part by asking why God put so many valves in the veins and none in the arteries. Harvey, a member of the Church of England, referred to his beliefs in his scientific work: in a lecture on the heart and pericardium, he cited the Apostle John's account of Christ's crucifixion in which blood and water flowed out when Jesus was speared in his side. In a scientific treatise on parturition, Harvey mentions the pregnancy of Mary, Jesus' mother; but he does not say "Jesus." Instead, he intones "our Savior Christ, of men most perfect." There is more on Harvey and his belief in a providential God in my book on him. But let us move on. I will only cover briefly each scientist's research and his beliefs.

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) discovered three fundamental laws of planetary motion. Kepler, a German Lutheran, was like Harvey in that he also combined science and Christianity. He decided that God had patterned the universe after the Holy Trinity. He thought our central sun is an image of God the Gather; the outer reaches of the stars is an image of God the Son; and the intervening space is an image of God the Holy Spirit. He composed a Latin poem for his death. Translated, it is: "I used to measure the heavens, now I shall measure the shadows of the earth. Although my soul was from heaven, the shadow of my body lies here." As he lay dying, Kepler said his hope of salvation lay "only and alone on the services of Jesus Christ."

At the beginning of his famous starry messenger, which reports his telescopic Discoveries, Galileo Galilei (1564-1642), an Italian Catholic, refers to devising his telescope "after being illuminated by divine grace." In his Dialogue on the Two Great World Systems, Galileo referred to God as a purposeful "Divine Architect" of the creation.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691) was one of the founders of the Royal Society of London, and is generally credited with being the father of modern chemistry. His discovery of the pressure-volume relationship in a gas is called "Boyle's Law." He was also a humble, witnessing Christian and a diligent student of the Bible. He was profoundly interested in missions and devoted much of his own money to Bible translation work and the propagation of the gospel. In his will, he provided for the "Boyle Lecture Sermons" for proving the Christian religion. These were given in London churches by persons who knew both science and religion.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) was one of the greatest early philosophers and mathematicians. He made one of the first calculators. He was a deeply spiritual man and a member of the sect known as the Jansenists, a Calvinistic quasi-protestant group within the Catholic Church in France. A developer of probability theory, he proposed the famous wager, paraphrased as follows: How can anyone lose who chooses to become a Christian? If, when he dies, there turns out to be no God and his faith was in vain, he has lost nothing - in fact, he has been happier in life than his non-believing friends. If, however, there is a God and a heaven and hell, then he has gained heaven and his skeptical friends will have lost everything in hell!

John Ray (1627-1705) has been called the father of English Natural History. Ray was also a strong Christian and a creationist, writing a number of books on natural theology, chief of which is the Wisdom of God Manifested in the Works of the Creation. God's works of creation, he said, were "the works created by God at first, and by Him conserved to this day in the same state and condition in which they were first made."

Nicholas Steno (1631-1686) developed the principles of stratigraphy which are still considered basic today. Fossils did not represent "sports of nature," as many geologists of the time believed, but were remains of actual plants and animals living at the time of Noah's Flood. You may have seen his famous picture of a shark's head, but the purpose of it was to show that what people called "tongue stones" and thought were produced in the ground, were actually fossil shark's teeth. (Pictured at right is one from my collection.) Steno was originally from Denmark, but moved to Italy. He eventually took up orders and a religious vocation there, writing numerous theological works and becoming a Catholic Bishop.

Robert Hooke (1635-1703) is noted for his research with the microscope. He was a brilliant physicist and geologist. At that time, researchers had found marine fossils in the Alps. Hooke thought that Noah's Flood may have been a violent affair and caused marine animals to be tossed into mountains and also to cause some species of animals to become extinct. Hooke used the idea that God designed things with a purpose in his science.

Thomas Burnet (1635-1715) was an Anglican Clergyman and also one of the first geologists. He wrote a very influential book entitled Sacred Theory of the Earth. In this work, he took the scriptural account of creation and the flood as providing the basic framework of interpretation for earth history and showing it to be confirmed by the known facts of physics and geology.

Michael Faraday (1791-1867) is universally acknowledged as one of the greatest physicists of all time. He was deeply spiritual, a member of the Sandemanian sect, a small fundamentalist church whose teachings included emphasis on God's creation as purposeful and harmonious and designed for man's well-being. He had an abiding faith in the bible and in prayer. He fully believed in the official doctrine of his church, which said: "the Bible, and it alone, with nothing added to it nor taken away from it by man, is the sole and sufficient guide for each individual, at all times and in all circumstances. . . . faith in the divinity and work of Christ is the gift of God, and the evidence of this faith is obedience to the commandment of Christ."

Humphrey Davy (1778-1829) was one of the great chemists of this period, the man whom Faraday served under as an apprentice and who inspired Faraday to devote his life to science. Sir Humphrey was the first to isolate many important chemical elements, to develop the motion theory of heat, and to invent the safety lamp, which saved the lives of many miners. This lamp would not ignite the explosive gas mixtures miners encountered in coal mines. Like his young friend, Faraday, Davy was a Bible-believing Christian, and very generous, though not as spiritually minded and patient as was Faraday.

Samuel F.B. Morse (1791-1872) is justly famous for his invention of the telegraph, one of the most important milestones in human history. The first message he sent (in 1844) over the wire, from Baltimore to Washington, was "what hath God wrought!," which is from the last part of Numbers 23:23. This is indicative of Morse's whole life and purpose, desiring to honor the Lord in all things. Just four years before he died, Morse wrote: "the nearer I approach to the end of my pilgrimage, the clearer is the evidence of the divine origin of the Bible."

Matthew Maury (1806-1873), known as "the pathfinder of the seas" was, to all intents and purposes, the founder of the modern science of oceanography. On his tombstone at the U.S. Naval Academy is inscribed the eighth Psalm, verse eight: which says in part ". . . whatsoever passeth through the paths of the seas." He believed that if God said there were paths in the seas, it should be possible to find them. He dedicated his life to doing just that, and find them he did.

Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) is one of the greatest names in the history of science and medicine, chiefly because of his establishment of the germ theory of disease and his conclusive destruction of the concept of spontaneous generation. Also, he isolated a number of disease-producing organisms and developed vaccines to combat them (notably the dread diseases of rabies, diphtheria, anthrax, and others). He also developed the processes of pasteurization and sterilization. Pasteur was a strongly religious man, ever more so as he grew older. When asked about his faith, Pasteur, a French Catholic, would reply: "the more I know, the more does my faith approach that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know all, I would have the faith of a Breton peasant woman."

Joseph Lister (1827-1912) was a surgeon whose great contribution was the development of antiseptic surgery through use of chemical disinfectants. This development is probably second only to Pasteur's contribution in terms of saving of human lives. He, like many other great Christian scientists, was still a humble and gracious man. He was of Quaker background at a time when the Quakers were Orthodox Bible-believing Christians. He wrote: "I am a believer in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity."

A.H. Sayce (1845-1933) was an English philologist and archaeologist whose studies contributed significantly to the vindication through archaeology of the historical sections of the Old Testament. A long-time professor at Oxford, Sayce was probably the foremost Assyriologist of all time, as well as an expert on the Hittites. When he began his career, he was steeped in higher criticism, but the hard facts from the archaeological and linguistic investigations in which he played a leading role contributed to his conversion to Biblical Christianity. He authored over twenty-five major books in his fields.

John Ambrose Fleming (1849-1945) could well be recognized as the father of modern electronics, devising the first true electron tube. He studied under Maxwell at Cambridge and worked as a consultant for Thomas Edison and also for Marconi. He served for over forty years as Professor of Electrical Engineering at the University of London, receiving many honors for his contributions in electronics, radio, and television. In addition, he was an active Christian apologist, son of a Congregational minister. He served for a time as president of the Victoria Institute and wrote at least one major book against evolution. He was also a founder and first president of the Evolution Protest Movement.

Susan Steinmetz is a research meteorologist in the Applications Laboratory of the United States National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in Washington, D.C. Her current research program is aimed at a better understanding of data from vertical profiling instruments on the NOAA series of meteorological satellites. Her church is the New Covenant Christian Community in College Park, Maryland. About Christianity and science she says: "Meteorology is a special thing in my relationship with the Lord, it's a product of my faith - and a means God uses to teach me more about Himself.". . . "I'm especially fascinated by the symbolism of the rainbow. Physically, the rainbow results from the prismatic effect of light from the sun. And, in the days of Noah, God first used it as a spiritual symbol - that He would never again threaten universal judgment by water because of sin. His enlightenment shines through believers: we are all witnesses to His grace and goodness. But it is sobering to remember that, in Noah's time, only a few people were saved. How were they saved? By doing what God said they should!"

George Washington Carver (1864-1943) was the great black scientist who was considered the world's top authority on peanuts and sweet potatoes and their products. Born as a slave, he worked his way through college in the north and then returned to the south, desiring to devote his life to improving the quality of southern farm lands and the economic prosperity of his people. As a faculty member at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama, he turned down a number of much more lucrative offers, as the fame of his genius as an agricultural chemist spread. He developed over 300 products from the peanut and over 118 from the sweet potato. He traveled throughout the country lecturing on his science. On 31 October 1933, he visited here at Georgia Southern University at the invitation of then President Wells.

Carver was also a sincere and humble Christian, never hesitating to confess his faith in the God of the Bible and attributing all his success and ability to God. In 1939 he was awarded the Roosevelt medal, with the following citation: "To a scientist humbly seeking the guidance of God and a liberator to men of the white race as well as the black.

The following are excerpts from George Washington Carver's writings, in his own words. (I have retained his own spelling and grammar, but have combined some parts for readability):

"My sister mother and myself were ku klucked, and sold in Arkansaw and there are now so many conflicting reports concerning them I dare not say if they are dead or alive. Mr. Carver the jentleman who owned my mother sent a man for us, but only I was brought back, nearly dead with whooping cough with the report that mother & sister was dead, although some sauy they saw them afterwards going north with the soldiers.

"My home was near Neosho Newton Co Missouri where I remained until I was about 9 years old my body was very feble and it was a constant warfare between life and death to see who would gain the mastery . . . .

"I was just a mere boy when converted, hardly ten years old. There isn't much of a story to it. God just came into my heart one afternoon while I was alone in the `loft' of our big barn while I was shelling corn to carry to the mill to be ground into meal. A dear little white boy, one of our neighbors, about my age came by one Saturday morning, and in talking and playing he told me he was going to Sunday school tomorrow morning. I was eager to know what a Sunday school was. He said they sang hymns and prayed. I asked him what prayer was and what they said. I do not remember what he said; only remember that as soon as he left I climbed up into the `loft,' knelt down by the barrel of corn and prayed as best I could. I do not remember what I said. I only recall that I felt so good that I prayed several times before I quit. My favorite song was `Must Jesus Bear the Cross Alone and all the world go free,' etc.

"At the age of 10 years, I left for Neosho, a little town just 8 miles from our farm, where I could go to school. Mr. and Mrs. Carver were perfectly willing for us to go where we could be educated the same as white children. I remained here about two years, got an opportunity to go to Fort Scott, Kansas with a family. Every year I went to school, supporting myself by cooking and doing all kinds of house work in private families.

"After finishing my Bachelor's degree I was elected a member of the faculty, and given charge of the greenhouse, bacteriological laboratory, and the laboratory work in systematic botany. Mr. Washington said he needed a man of my training. I accepted and came to Tuskegee, and have been here ever since.

"I am more and more convinced, as I search for truth that no ardent student of nature, can `Behold the lillies of the field'; or `Look unto the hills', or study even the microscopic wonders of a stagnant pool of water, and honestly declare himself to be an Infidel. More and more as we come closer and closer in touch with nature and its teachings are we able to see the Divine and are therefore fitted to interpret correctly the various languages spoken by all forms of nature about us.

"My life time study of nature in it's many phazes leads me to believe more strongly than ever in the Biblical account of man's creation as found in Gen. 1:27 `And God created man in his own image, in the image of God created He him; male and female created he them.' Of course sciences through all of the ages have been searching for the so-called `missing link' which enables us to interpert man from his very beginning, up to his present high state of civilization. I am fearful lest our finite researches will be wholy unable to grasp the infinite details of creation, and therefore we lose the great truth of the creation of man.

"God has indeed been good to me and is yet opening up wonders and allowing me to peep in as it were. I do love the things God has created, both animate and inanimate. I am absolutely nothing except as God speaks through me.

Carver sought to merge science and religion and commented about one of his talks in a letter to a friend: "I attempted to give a little demonstration on the Creation Story as set forth in the Bible and geology. In other words, I attempted to show that there was no conflict between science and religion. I had a great many illustrations from my geological collection, showing many fossils which told there own story. I had quite a large audience, and they seemed to get a little out of it. It was something so distinctly new to them that they probably overrated its value. . . ." Obviously there was no "methodological naturalism" for this famous twentieth-century scientist!

Carver looked to God for "Divine inspiration" in his work. When he spoke about this in New York City in November 1924, he said: "I never have to grope for methods: the method is revealed at the moment I am inspired to create something new." Two days later, the New York Times, in an editorial entitled "Men of Science Never Talk that Way," declared that Carver's comments revealed "a complete lack of the scientific spirit" and that they discredited him, his race, and Tuskegee Institute.

Carver responded to this attack: "I have read with much interest your editorial pertaining to myself in the issue of November 20th. I regret exceedingly that such a gross misunderstanding should arise as to what was meant by `Divine inspiration.' Inspiration is never at variance with information; in fact, the more information one has, the greater will be the inspiration. Paul, the great Scholar, says, Second Timothy 2-15, `Study to show thyself approved unto God, a Workman that needeth not to be ashamed, rightly dividing the word of truth. Again he says in Galatians 1-12: `For I neither received it of man, neither was I taught it, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ. Many, many other equally strong passages could be cited, but these two are sufficient to form a base around which to cluster my remarks. In the first verse, I have followed and am yet following the first word of study. I thoroughly understand that there are scientists to whom the world is merely the result of chemical forces or material electrons. I do not belong to this class.

"While in your beautiful city, I was struck with the large number of Taros and Yautias displayed in many of your markets; they are edible roots imported to this country largely from Trinidad, Porto Rico, China, Dutch Guina, and Peru. Just as soon as I saw these luscious roots, I marveled at the wonderful possibilities for their expansion. Dozens of things came to me while standing there looking at them. I would follow the same or similar lines I have pursued in developing products from the white potato. I know of no one who has ever worked with these roots in this way. I know of no book from which I can get this information, yet I will have no trouble in doing it. If this is not inspiration and information from a source greater than myself, or greater than any one has wrought up to the present time, kindly tell me what it is. `And ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free.' John 8-32. Science is simply the truth about anything.

Friends and Christians supported Carver as a result of the New York Times' attack. He responded to a Christian friend in a 15 January 1925 letter:

"My dear Bro. Ward,

"Many, many thanks for your letter of Jan. 4th. How it lifted up my very soul, and made me to feel that after all God moves in a mysterious way His wonders to perform.

"I did indeed feel very badly for a while, not that the cynical criticism was directed at me, but rather at the religion of Jesus Christ. Dear Bro. I know that my Redeemer liveth.

I believe through the providence of the Almighty it was a good thing. Since the criticism was made I have had dozens of books, papers, periodicals, magazines, personal letters from individuals in all walks of life. Copies of letters to the editor of the Times are bearing me out in my assertion. Pray for me please that every thing said and done will be to His glory. I am not interested in science or any thing else that leaves God out of it.

Other letters sum up his whole attitude on science and Christianity: "My beloved friend, keep your hand in that of the Master, walk daily by His side, so that you may lead others into the realms of true happiness, where a religion of hate, (which poisons both body and soul) will be unknown, having in its place the `Golden Rule' way, which is the `Jesus Way' of life, will reign supreme. Then, we can walk and talk with Jesus momentarily, because we will be attuned to His will and wishes, thus making the Creation story of the world non-debateable as to its reality. God, my beloved friend is infinite the highest embodiment of love. We are finite, surrounded and often filled with hate. We can only understand the infinite as we loose the finite and take on the infinite.

Carver quoted liberally from the Bible. The following are a few of these quotations, or his reaction to them:

"In the 12th chapter of Job and the 7th & 8th verses, we are urged thus: But ask now the beasts and they shall teach thee; and the fowls of the air, and they shall tell thee.

"Or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee; and the fishes of the sea shall declare unto thee.

"In St. John the 8th chapter and 32nd verse, we have this remarkable statement: `And ye shall know the truth and the truth shall make you free.' Were I permitted to paraphrase it, I would put it thus: And you shall know science and science shall set you free, because science is truth.

"There is nothing more assuring, more inspiring, or more literally true than the above passages from Holy Writ.

"We get closer to God as we get more intimately and understandingly acquainted with the things he has created. I know of nothing more inspiring than that of making discoveries for ones self.

"I am just trying, through Christ, to be a better man each day.

Most of the above information comes from my book, William Harvey and the Use of Purpose in the Scientific Revolution (1998), from H.M. Morris, Men of Science, Men of God (1982), from E.C.Barnett & D.Fisher, Scientists Who Believe (1984), and from G.R. Kremer, George Washington Carver in His Own Words (1987). The pictures of Carver are from this last book, and from T.R. Shurbutt, Georgia Southern: Seventy-five Years of Progress and Service (1982) p. 62.