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SECTION FIVE:
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

TEACHING METHODS


LECTURE (TELLING)

The lecture is the most used (and most abused) of all classroom procedures. In itself, it is so ineffective in presenting information that it hardly rates being considered as a separate method of teaching. It is best used in combination with other methods and is a valuable "tool" of the teacher who recognizes and appreciates its merits and limitations.


"Telling is not teaching; listening is not learning."

USE IT
-- to introduce a new topic.
-- to create interest in the lesson to be taught.
-- to describe an experience.
-- to summarize a lesson.
-- to explain key points as you demonstrate. to supplement other methods.

DON'T USE IT
-- to describe manipulative processes, -- to describe complex objects.
-- to explain highly technical subject matter.


LECTURES CAN BE IMPROVED BY
-- good voice, posture, delivery, and a certain amount of "showmanship."
-- spelling technical and unfamiliar words an the chalkboard.
-- simple analogies, everyday comparisons, and chalkboard sketches.
-- concise, simple definitions.
-- frequent repetition of difficult ideas.

REMEMBER
-- that lecture, used exclusively, is the too] of the lazy teacher.
-- that if your students haven't understood you, you didn't make your-self clear.

D E M 0 N S T R A T I 0 N

In a shop demonstration, the instructor--using real tools, machines, and materials -- shows the learner what he is supposed to do by actually performing the skill or task and explaining what he is doing and why. Included in the explanation are key points and ca6-ti-ons as they are needed. In a so-called
laboratory demonstration, the instructor demonstrates -- with apparatus -- a natural law or phenomenon to a group of students.


A demonstration can be-made to an individual or to a small group

USE IT
--to show a learner how to do a task
--to show how a piece of machinery or equipment operates.
--to clarify a principle or theory.

DON'T USE IT
-- as the sole means of teaching a lesson.
-- when note taking is required
-- in the place of practice.


DEMONSTRATIONS CAN BE IMPROVED BY
-- setting up and rehearsing in advance.
-- limiting a group demonstration to a few individuals.
-- arranging students so that all can see the work from the same position as they will normally be working.
-- performing tasks at normal speed first, then repeating at slower speed.
-- the use of questions as the demonstration advances.

REMEMBER
-- to explain the why of each step as well as key points and cautions
-- to demonstrate your own craftsmanship; be thorough; never do a "Sloppy" job before your students.
-- that the student must be given a chance to "try-out" following a demonstration

DIRECTED A CTIVITY

Everyone knows that "we learn to do doing." Merely doing thing things without the direction and guidance of an experienced person and without a definite purpose in mind has little educational value. Student activities may be directed through use of such methods as written lesson assignments, job sheets, workbooks, projects, experiments, and supervised drill or practice.


An activity should leave a definite purpose.

USE IT
--to supplement other methods of instruction.
--to save tire in teaching.
--to boost the slow student.
--to enrich the learning of the advanced student.
--to create and maintain student interest

DON'T USE IT
-- without your personal supervision.
-- as a substitute for other methods of teaching.



DIRECTED ACTIVITIES CAN BE IMPROVED BY
-- clear and adequate directions or procedures
-- adequate references (if needed).


REMEMBER
-- that no teaching aids, however good, can take the place of the teacher.
-- that individual lesson assignments are the most effective means of adjusting instruction to meet the needs of a group of students whose interests, background, and abilities differ.
-- that any type of class which does not provide for student activity tends to become boring.

PRACTICE OR DRILL

Subject: PRACTICE OR DRILL
Aim: To be able to select the most effective activity to use in the application stage of a lesson to establish desirable habits in students.

.
HAND
Practice on the job
.

.
HEAD
Drill on the lesson
.

The student learns by exercising a skill under your direction. Practice achieves best results when students use real materials, machines, and production methods.

The student learns by drill on essential information.


WHEN to use practice or drill
1. When the student is to learn a skill until it becomes a habit
2. When you want the student to remember essential information
3. When there is no other method--practice or drill is the only possible way.

HOW to use practice or drill
1. Connect the new information or skill with old skills or experience.
2. Students' habits can best be formed by following these Simple
rules:

a. Get students started doing the thing right.
b. See to it that they always do it in the same way.
c. Encourage them to think about it as they do it.
d. Have them do it over and over at regular and frequent intervals.

3. Prepare students by arousing their interest.
4. Show them clearly what they must do or know.
5. Make the practice or dri-11 as nearly as possible like the work they will do.


ORAL QUESTIONS

Expecting learners to answer a list of prepared questions (or catechism) is
an out-moded method of teaching. However, like the lecture, questions are a valuable aid to the instructor if used judiciously and in the conjunction with other teaching methods and techniques. In general, questions should stimulate thinking and reasoning rather than test the learners' ability to repeat memorized bits of factual information.

State the question clearly to prevent misunderstanding

USE THEM
-- to "warm up" the group.
-- to encourage learner participation.
-- to clarify understanding.
-- to spot check the effectiveness of your instruction.
-- to maintain class attention.
-- to review material taught.

DON'T USE THEM
--in lieu of real teaching.
-- to fill class time.
-- in a fixed order (as from a class roll).
-- as a grading or testing technique.


QUESTIONS CAN BE IMPROVE BY
--limiting them to a single idea.
-- stating them clearly and simply.

REMEMBER
--to direct question to the entire group first, then call on a person to answer.
--to use frequently questions beginning with why, when, what, and how to make learner justify or explain their answer to a question
--that frequently learners may be caused to answer their own questions by use of "counter-questions" from the instructor.
--that many questions asked by learners may be returned to the group for an answers.


THE ART OF QUESTIONING



QUESTIONS/PROMPTS

Use of questions and prompts can enhance or hinder learning. They should be used for:
1. Checking for understanding
2. Promoting active participation
3. Promoting higher-level thinking skills

If there is one thing in the teaching that you can bet your life will happen in a teaching situation, it is that some students will pronounce incorrect answers. Unfortunately a wrong answer can become a put down if not handled correctly. Some DO's/DON'Ts to remember about questioning are listed below (TM 59)

1. Always tell the learner when they are correct. Then tell them the correct answer. All questions that students respond to incorrectly need to be corrected.
2. A teacher's questioning skills can hurt the learner. If a students responds incorrectly, the teacher should be careful to let them down easy. This can be done by dignifying the response; then give the correct response.
3. You may choose to hint to prompt the student. Remember when a student gives you the wrong answer, he is indicating he does not know two things: The answer to the question asked and the answer to the question to which the answer given really belongs. For example is asked, "How much is 5 x 7?" The answer given is 30. The student is indicating he does not know 5x7=30 or that 5x6=30.
4. Reinforce correct responses
5. Maintain a certain level of tension in the classroom to keep students attentively by varying questions and those who are questioned.
6. Don't' use round-robin questioning
7. Don't call a student to respond to a question before the question has been asked

One purpose of using questions/prompts in teaching is to encourage more active participation by the leaner.

Ten Ways to Improve the Quality of Student Thinking

· Ensure that students process information rather than simply repeat it.
· Ask broad, open questions.
· Wait before calling on students. Wait before responding to answers.
· Follow up student responses by asking for:
§ Clarification-when you're not sure, or think other students may not be sure, what the student is talking about.
§ Elaboration-when a student gives a cryptic answer that doesn't include the necessary details (needed to accomplish the purpose of the lesson).
§ Evidence-when a student makes a statement that can be-or should be-- substantiated
§ Thinking Process-when the basis for a student's assumption, inference, or judgment is not clear.
· Have a clear purpose and plan a sequence of activities to accomplish it.
· Make students conscious of their own thinking processes. Have them work in pairs so that all students have an opportunity to verbalize their thinking.
· Model problem-solving and other thinking processes. Have students analyze the thinking processes of other people, such as great scientists.
· Have students ask questions of their own.
· Check your questioning and the kind of thinking you are getting by audiotaping your classes.
· Meet now and then with a small group of other teachers interested in teaching for thinking.

SIX STEPS OR LEVELS TO QUESTIONING
(*Based on Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognative Educational Objectives)

SIX STEPS TO QUESTIONING (Ranked by level, beginning with lowest)
· The Knowledgeable - Knowledgeables are questions that check the basic facts.
· The Comprehensible - Comprehensibles are questions that check your understanding.
· The Applicators - Applicators test your ability to make use of your information.
· The Analyzers - Analyzers are questions in which you select information and examine it, part by part.
· The Synthesizers - Synthesizer questions are those in which you use the things you already know to think creatively and respond.
· The Evaluators - Evaluator questions help you decide on the value of your information

THE KNOWLEDGEABLES
Definition - Knowledgeables are questions that check the basic facts about a topic-- the things most people know or should know, the common bits of information about a subject, the usually known items.

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
List, match, write, recall, know, summarize, who, what, where, when, say in your own words, observe and write, memorize, put into categories, arrange, select, tell about, name, group, show, underline, find, choose, label, spell, point to, say, pick.

The questions using these words should be about the basic facts concerning the topic.

THE COMPREHENSIBLES
Definition - Comprehensibles are questions that check your comprehension or understanding of the facts you uncovered in Level I - not just being able to repeat them but showing that you know the meaning of those facts.

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
Explain, show, demonstrate, change, re-word, interpret, alter, transform, retell, account for, recognize, propose, submit, define, translate, convert, expand, outline, vary, spell out, restate in your own words, offer.

These questions should cause the student to take the basic facts and evidence an understanding.

THE APPLICATORS
Definition - Applicators are questions that test your ability to use your knowledge to solve problems or make use of your information in a new or unusual manner.

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
Apply, select, solve by, organize, choose, interview, make use of, experiment with, try, operate, relate, put to use, handle, put into action, utilize, record, model, construct demonstrate through, put together.

Applicator questions require the student to use informative facts learned in basic information.




THE ANALYZERS
Definition - Analyzers are questions in which you select information, examine it, break it apart into separate parts and try to learn--

1. how something works
2. why something is so
3. why something happens
4. what is so special about something

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
Break down, inspect, divide, put into categories, take away, examine, uncover, survey, group, analyze, test for, study, identify the parts for, search, classify, discover, contrast, compare, simplify, take apart.

These questions should relate back to the basic information from Level I

THE SYNTHESIZERS
Definition - Synthesizer questions are those in which you put the basic information back together, but in a new, original or different way. Use the things you already know to think creatively and respond in new ways or come up with different ideas or methods.

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
Create, design, develop, discuss, build, imagine, compare re-order, make, compose combine, compile, blend, construct, predict, invent, reorganize, form, contrast, make up, estimate, re-arrange, alternate, suppose, originate.

Many of these words are related to "doing" something with your information.

THE EVALUATORS
Definition - Evaluator questions help you decide on the value of your information. They help you make judgments about the information and they aid in deciding whether or not to accept or reject your facts and/or work.

WORDS TO USE TO START YOUR QUESTIONS WITH:
Rank, evaluate, rate, judge, measure, choose, criticize, justify, determine, conclude, grade, select, award, recommend, reveal, dispute, rule on, decide, defend.

These words are very useful in evaluating both your work and the worth of your information.


TEACHING METHODS

DISCUSSION

The discussion method provides opportunities for individuals in a group to "pool" their experiences and ideas concerning a subject or problem. Its uses in teaching are many and varied, but if the instructor pr leader is not skilled in the techniques of leading a discussion, the result may be wholly unsatisfactory or even detrimental.

The success of a discussion largely
depends upon the skill of the leader

USE IT
--at the beginning of a lesson to stimulate interest
--to stimulate student participation
--to collect experiences and ideas
--to promote common understanding of a subject or problem
--to modify opinions and attitudes
--at the end of a lesson to summarize or review

DON'T USE IT
--to present new information
--with immature or "green" students.





DISCUSSION CAN BE IMPROVED BY
--planning the main topics to be covered
--listing and organizing ideas on chalkboard
--participation of the entire group
--informal rather than strict procedures

REMEMBER
--that the leader (instructor) must not dominate the discussion
--that the effectiveness of any discussion depends largely upon the skill of the leader
--that each group member must have some previous knowledge of the subject


INDIRECT TEACHING METHODS


Subject: Several Indirect Teaching Methods
Aim: To briefly present the settings and possible uses of some variations of the discussion method. These variations are the conference, the panel discussion, and the symposium.

THE CONFERENCE
The conference is a "round table" technique designed to draw out, evaluate, and integrate. Prepared addresses are out of order. The conference leader may be considered a "traffic officer or ideas."

The steps involved in a conference procedure are:
1. Assemble experience from the group.
2. Select the experience data or facts that function directly on the problem.
3. Evaluate pertinent data or experience.
4. Conclude or decide on the best procedure.

The physical setting usually consists of a room with a leader's table, a chalkboard, and a U-shaped table for the conference members.

Charting is often used in a conference. In charting, the leader writes a heading on the chalkboard and lists the reactions of the group members to it. The leader should not put the headings on the board until needed. Questioning is usually "overhead." Samples of chart headings follow:


Diffilculty of problem

Cause

Remedy

What is wrong?

Who is to blame?

What can be done about it?

Good points or advantages

Bad points or disadvantages


THE PANEL DISCUSSION

For use in large groups. The discussion leadership is in the hands of the "panel," usually a group of some four to eight.

The usual panel procedure includes:

1. Questions asked by the leader and answered by the panel members.

2. Discussion among members or between members and leader.

3. Questions from the audience, directed to the panel at the end of its discussion.



THE SYMPOSIUM
For use in large groups. Members usually make speeches directly to the audience. Often a leader begins the program and is followed by several speakers. After the speeches, the audience may ask questions of individual members. The symposium tends to make teaching situation more personal than lecture alone.

In general, the size of a group will determine which of these three methods is most effective. For instance, the conference is best used with group of similar interest and responsibilities consisting of some eight to sixteen members. Fewer than eight or more than sixteen members present some additional problems for the conference leader. The panel discussion may be used with groups up to two hundred, while the symposium is used with group too large to be taught by any other method.

CHOOSE THE BEST METHOD!

METHOD

USE IT

DON'T USE IT

Demonstration

--To show manipulative operations.
--To clarify principles or theory
--To show use of equipment

--When note taking is required
--In place of practice

Illustration

--To bring out hidden features.
--As a substitute for demonstration where cost or other factors makes it more desirable

--If a demonstration could be as easily given.
--Without practice if skill is to be developed

Question & Answers (Discussion)

--To warm up or review
--To promote understanding
--To give reasons
--To emphasize factual material
--To make people think

--To fill time
--Without a good leader
--To present new material
--In place of practice

Practice

--To develop performance practice
--To help in retaining information

--On a theoretical problem, but only on a real one.

Conference

--To get opinions and ideas
--To encourage group thinking
--To benefit from previous experience
--To modify opinions
To develop understanding
To gain acceptance

--Unless students are already informed about the subject.
--As initial training.

Lecture

--When presenting informational material or explaining a process
--Supplemented by visual aids

--For material with many details.
--For training in a skill

Reading

--Sparingly to emphasize exact wording
--As an aid rather than basic method

--As a basic method for conducting a meeting.

.


METHODS OF TEACHING

METHOD

DESCRIPTION

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

WHEN TO USE

Lecture (Explanation)

>Transferring information verbally. >An explanation of the teaching points of each topic

>Ability to handle large group.
>Ability to utilize radio.
>Easy to provide facilities

>Limits type of subjects.
>Limit chance to learn.
>Can't measure efficiency.

>To impart new information.
>To supplement other methods

Illustration

>Use of pictures, charts, maps, sketches, models, films, chalkboard

>Bring out hidden features.
>Learn by seeing. Good substitution for demonstration.
>Cheaper than demonstration.

>Sometimes hard to get.
>Doesn't always teach what you want

>Profitable supplement to any other methods.
>As a substitute for demonstration

Demonstration

>Actually doing the task steps by step, explaining the how and why of each step

>Builds confidence in instructor. >Proves information reliable. >More nearly affords complete learning

>Lack of suitable place. >Lack of suitable equipment. >Excessive cost. >Takes time. >Limit size of class

>Instructing for doing ability. >To supplement other methods

Discussion

>Drawing information from group and through discussion arrive at conclusion

>Uses group experience. >Brings out best point of experience for new ideas. >Everyone has a chance

>Inexperience of group. >Lack of trained leaders. >Discussion may get out of control. >Takes a lot of time.

>Instructing for improved practices. >To reach conclusion. >Supplement to other methods

Questions & Answers

>Key questions planned by instructor on subject matter of lesson --tie-in with other lesson -- review of previous lesson -- application lesson

>To promote thinking. >To review. >Emphasize key points. >To promote individual participation. >Helps in developing understanding

>Requires time and thought on pat of instructor to select and frame good questions. >Sometimes used to kill time. >May allow some students to do all the talking if not properly directed

>To review and tie-in preceding lesson. >Before concluding a lesson to review and emphasize major points. >To bring in experience of class members. >Use with all methods

Practice

>Learner practices performance of skills under close supervision

>Develop performance skills

>Danger of improper supervision

>After instructor demonstrate a "doing" job, the learner should always practice doing the job under supervision of the instructor

Drill

>Learner reviews and repeats min points of information or problem solving until he has it mastered and understand it

>Helps master and retain points of information

>Danger of improper supervision

>After the instructor has presented an informal lesson with proper teaching aids and explanation, the opportunity to discuss, review, or use the information is provided

Directed Activity

>"Doing" under the direction and guidance of an experienced person and with a definite purpose in mind

>Saves time in teaching - boosts the slow student - creates and maintains student interest - enriches study of advanced student

>Demands full-time supervision of the instructor

>To make specific application of student-acquired skills

.

GOAL STRUCTURES FOR TEACHING AND LEARNING
(DAVID AND ROGER JOHNSON)


1. INDIVIDUALISTIC

· STUDENTS WORK ON THEIR OWN;

· NO INTERDEPENDENCE;

· ACHIEVEMENT UNRELATED TO OTHER STUDENTS' PROGRESS;

· DEMANDS ON THE TEACHER FOR EXTENSIVE PLANNING, FOR DIAGNOSING STUDENT NEEDS AND EVALUATING STUDENT PERFORMANCES AND FOR PROVIDING ASSISTANCE;

· RESTRICTION OF THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF STUDENTS, AND THE NEED FOR INTERACTION IN FORMULATING ONE'S IDENTITY;

· PREFERRED WHEN IS IMPORTANT THAT EACH STUDENT ACHIEVE THE GOALS & I WHEN THE GOAL IS POSSIBLE FOR EACH STUDENT;

· WHEN THERE ARE SPECIFIC FACTS, OR SKILLS TO BE LEARNED; SUFFICIENT MATERIALS, ADEQUATE SPACE AND CLEAR PROCEDURES;

· REQUIRES RESPONSIBILTY FROM EACH STUDENT; AND

· THE TEACHER IS THE MAJOR RESOURCE FOR ASSISTANCE.



2. COMPETITIVE

· STUDENTS COMPETING WITH ONE ANOTHER WITH AN EMPHASIS ON MOTIVATION;

· EMPHASIZES NEGATIVE INTERDEPENDENCE;

· WINNING ONLY IF THEIR PEERS FAIL; "FEW WINNERS' & 'MANY LOSERS";

· WHEN CONTINUALLY RANKED AS A "LOSERN, FEELINGS OF WORTHLESSNESS, HELPLESSNESS, INCOMPETENCE AND NEGATIVE SELF IMAGE WILL OFTEN RESULT;

· FREQUENT FAILURE LEADS TO SELECTING ACTIVITIES WITH EITHER A HIGH CHANCE OF SUCCESS (LITTLE RISK) OR WITH A LOW CHANCE OF SUCCESS (FAILURE WILL NOT BE DEMEANING);

· MUST CONCENTRATE ON THEIR OWN PERFORMANCES & IGNORE OTHER STUDENTS, & SUCH BEHAVIORS COUNTERACT BOTH STUDENTS' NATURAL INCLINATIONS (INTERACTION WITH PEERS) AND TEACHERS' AFFECTIVE CLASSROOM GOALS (EMPATHY AND UNDERSTANDING);

· MAY DEVELOP FEARS OF WINNING (CONSEQUENT ISOLATION FROM PEERS) OR OF LOSING (CONSEQUENT GUILT);
· CAN LEAD TO SABOTAGE AND HOSTILE REACTIONS TO OTHER COMPETITORS;

· WHILE TRYING TO HELP STUDENTS DEVELOP INTRINSIC MOTIVATION, COMPETITION COUNTERACTS THIS BY MAKING EXTRINSICALLY-MOTIVATED "WINNING" THE MOST DESIREABLE GOAL;

· CAN HELP TO INCREASE STUDENT PERFORMANCE ON SIMPLE DRILL ACTIVITIES OR SPEED-RELATED TASKS;

· WHEN ANXIETY IS MINIMIZED CAN BE VALUABLE VEHICLE FOR THE RELEASE OF STUDENT ENERGY;

· CAN BE FUN AND EXCITING AND A REAL SENSE OF PLEASURE IN PITTING ONE'S SKILLS AGAINST THOSE OF ANOTHER; AND

· STUDENTS OFTEN APPRECIATE SUCH OPPORTUNITIES FOR SELF-EVALUATION AND MOTIVATION FOR IMPROVEMENT OF SKILLS;

· MUST BELIEVE THAT THEY HAVE A REASONABLE CHANCE OF WINNING;

· CRITERIA FOR CORRECT AND INCORRECT RESPONSES MUST BE CLEAR AND METHODS FOR ARBITRATING ARGUMENTS AND DETERMINING WINNERS SHOULD BE CLEARLY SPECIFIED AND COMMUNICATED TO STUDENTS.



3. COOPERATIVE

· STUDENTS WORKING TOGETHER TO REACH A GOAL;

· THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT FACILITATES POSITIVE INTERDEPENDENCE AND SHARED GOALS;

· ACHIEVE G6ALS ONLY WHEN OTHER STUDENTS ARE ALSO SUCCESSFUL;

· COOPERATIVE LEARNING IS BOTH THE MOST UNDERUTILIZED AND THE MOST VALUABLE STRUCTURE FOR FACILITATING THINKING AND PROBLEM-SOLVING;

· THE PREVALENCE AND NECESSITY FOR COOPERATION IN ALL ASPECTS OF OUR SOCIETY (HOME, WORK & PLAY)

· THE GREATEST NEED IN CLASSROOMS IS THE CAREFULLY PLANNED COOPERATIVE GOAL STRUCTURE, WHICH BECOMES THE FRAMEWORK WITHIN WHICH COMPETITION & INDIVIDUALIZATION TAKES PLACE;

· COOPERATION RATHER THAN COMPETITION FACILITATES HIGHER ACHIEVEMENT;

· LACK OF EVIDENCE THAT COMPETITION (ATHLETICS) BUILDS "CHARACTER" INSTEAD PROMOTING A "WIN AT ALL COSTS" MENTALITY;

· STUDENTS PREFER COOPERATIVE ACTIVITIES OVER COMPETITIVE ACTIVITIES;

· NEED FOR INTERACTION WITH OTHER STUDENTS IN FORMULATING ONE'S IDENTITY AND TO DEVELOP SOCIALLY;

· INCREASED ACHIEVEMENT FOR BOTH BRIGHTER AND SLOWER STUDENTS - EXPLAINING MATERIAL IN A VARIETY OF WAYS CHALLENGES THE BRIGHT STUDENT AND RECEIVING IMMEDIATE ASSISTANCE AND FEEDBACK HELPS THE SLOW STUDENT;

· THE DIVISION OF LABOR ALLOWS FOR INDIVIDUALIZED WORK;

· FOCUS ON COOPERATION WHICH COUNTERACTS ISOLATION AND NEGATIVE REACTIONS;

· SUPPORT & OPPORTUNITY FOR SUCCESS MINIMIZES APATHY; &

· SUPPORT IN COOPERATIVE GROUPS FACILITATES RISK-TAKING

.


BENEFITS OF COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

1. OVER 900/o OF ALL HUMAN INTERACTION IS COOPERATIVE,THUS A MAJOR GOAL OF THE SCHOOL MUST BE TO EDUCATE STUDENTS TO WORK COOPERATIVELY WITH OTHERS;

2. ONE OF THE FEW RECOMMENDED EDUCATIONAL PRACTICES BASED SOLIDLY UPON RESEARACH AND VERIFIED THEORY;

3. AN APPROPRIATE VEHICLE FOR BUILDING AND MAINTAINING THE SKILLS AND CAPABILITIES NECESSARY FOR HUMANE INTERACTIONS -- "KINDNESS, MERCY, CONSIDERATION TENDERSNESS, LOVE, CONCERN, COMPASSION, COOPERATION, RESPONSIVENESS AND FRIENDSHIP-, DEMOCRATIC VALUES, REDUCTION OF PREJUDICE AND BIAS, VALUING EDUCATION, POSITIVE SELF ATTITUDES AND ACCEPTANCE AND APPRECIATION OF CULTURAL, ETHNIC@ AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES;

4. DEVELOPMENT OF THE COGNITIVE ABILITIES OF STUDENTS: PROBLEM- SOLVING, RETENTION, APPLICATION, TRANSFER, VERBAL ABILITIES, CREATIVITY, & PERSPECTIVE-TAKING ABILITY;

5. AMERICAN CHILDREN (IN CONTRAST TO CHILDREN FROM OTHER CULTURES) ARE HIGHLY COMPETITIVE, THEY DO NOT RECEIVE THE TYPE OF EXPERIENCES THAT WOULD SENSITIZE THEM TO THE POSSIBILITY OF COOPERATION ... AND WHEN EXPLAINED, STUDENTS ACTUALLY PREFER COOPERATIVE GOALS STRUCTURES FOR SCHOOL WORK AND ALONG WITH THIS PREFERENCE GOES AN INCREASED LIKING FOR SCHOOL


COOPERATIVE LEARNING- WHAT IS IT?


· IS A SUCCESSFUL TEACHING STRATEGY IN WHICH SMALL TEAMS, EACH WITH STUDENTS OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF ABILITY, USE A VARIETY OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF A SUBJECT;

· EACH MEMBER OF A TEAM/GROUP IS RESPONSIBLE NOT ONLY FOR LEARNING WHAT IS TAUGHT BUT ALSO FOR HELPING TEAMMATES LEARN, THUS CREATING AN ATMOSPHERE OF ACHIEVEMENT;

· DOCUMENTED RESULTS INCLUDE:

1. IMPROVED ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT,
2. IMPROVED BEHAVIOR & ATTENDANCE,
3. INCREASED SELF-CONFIDENCE AND MOTIVATION, &
4. INCREASED LIKING OF SCHOOL AND CLASSMATES


TYPICAL STRATEGIES:

1. GROUP INVESTIGATIONS - STRUCTURED TO EMPHASIZE HIGHER-ORDER THINKING SKILLS SUCH AS ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION. STUDENTS WORK TO PRODUCE A GROUP PROJECT, WHICH THEY MAY HAVE A HAND IN SELECTING;

2. STAD (STUDENT TEAMS-ACHIEVEMENT DIVISION - STUDENTS WITH VARYING ACADEMIC ABILITIES ARE ASSIGNED TO 4 OR 5 MEMBER TEAMS IN ORDER TO STUDY WHAT HAS BEEN INITIALLY TAUGHT BY THE TEACHER AND TO HELP EACH REACH HIS OR HER HIGHEST LEVEL OF ACHIEVEMENT. STUDENTS ARE THEN TESTED INDIVIDUALLY. TEAMS EARN CERTIFICATES OR OTHER RECOGNITION BASED ON THE DEGEE TO WHICH ALL TEAM MEMBERS HAVE PROGRESSED OVER THEIR PAST RECORDS

3. JIGSAW II - USED WITH NARRATIVE MATERIAL; EACH TEAM MEMBER IS RESPONSIBLE FOR LEARNING A SPECIFIC PART OF A TOPIC. AFTER MEETING WITH MEMBERS OF OTHER GROUPS, WHO ARE "EXPERT" IN THE SAME PART, THE "EXPERTS" RETURN TO THEIR OWN GROUP AND PRESENT THEIR FINDINGS. TEAM MEMBERS THEN ARE QUIZZED ON ALL TOPICS.



TIPS ON COOPERATIVE LEARNING:

· DEPENDING ON THEIR INSTRUCTIONAL GOALS, TEACHERS MAY ELECT TO USE COOPERATIVE LEARNING AS EITHER THE PRIMARY ORGANIZING STRUCTURE OR AS A PERIODIC ACTIVITY TO BUILD AND ENHANCE BOTH COGNITIVE AND AFFECTIVE SKILLS.

· FOR COOPERATIVE LEARNING TO BE AN EFFECTIVE TEACHING-LEARNING EXPERIENCE TEACHERS MUST:

1. ENSURE THAT STUDENTS HAVE THE PREREQUISITE PROCESS SKILLS FOR EFFECTIVE GROUP FUNCTIONING - COMMUNICATION (SENDING, RECEIVING, INTERPRETING), TRUSTING (OPENNESS, SHARING, ACCEPTANCE, SUPPORT AND COOPERATIVE INTENTIONS) AND CONTROVERSY (PROBLEM SOLVING, DECISION MAKING, ROLE REVERSAL, CONSENSUS AND COMPROMISE) SKILLS THE TEACHER MUST TEACH THESE SKILLS AND PERIODICALLY REVIEW THEM;

2. PLAN FOR THE LOGISTIC FACTORS OF ROOM ARRANGEMENT, GROUP SIZE, GROUP COMPOSITION, GROUP LEADERSHIP AND MATERIALS;

3. DEFINE THE GROUP TASK AND RECOMMEND APPROPRIATE ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES;
4. DETERMINE APPROPRIATE EVALUATION CRITERIA;

5. DEFINE EXPECTED STUDENT AND TEACHER BEHAVIORS;

6. ACTIVE MONITORING BY THE TEACHER IS ESSENTIAL FOR KEEPING STUDENTS ON TASK;

7. GOOD ORGANIZATIONAL SKILLS ARE CRITICAL IN ORDER TO ASSURE MAXIMUM BENEFIT FROM STUDENTS' WORK IN GROUPS;

8. KEEP IN MIND THE UNIQUENESSES OF THE PARTICULAR CLASSES - AGE, MATURITY AND INTERPERSONAL CLASSROOM DYNAMICS MANDATE THAT TEACHERS MAKE APPROPRIATE ADAPTATIONS


Case Study
LETTER WRITING IN THE AUTO MECHANICS LAB


Joe Carter, the auto mechanics teacher at High Plains High School, was desperately looking for a nontraditional method of reviewing a lesson on safety. The safety unit was long, Joe was getting tired of reviewing safety procedures, and it was about time to start testing the students on the unit. Because Joe had held a position as a shop manager for an auto dealer prior to his teaching career, he emphasized throughout the unit the importance of students applying the safety procedures they had teamed in real life situations.

After much thought, Joe came up with the idea of assigning teams of students to write a business letter taking the role of an insurance company representative who had found safety violations in an auto mechanics business. Joe felt d= this would be an excellent review for the safety unit, however, he had one problem with the assignment. He did not know very much about writing business letters. Joe kept wondering how he was going to teach the students to do something that he knew very little about.

The more Joe thought about the letter writing assignment, the more excited he became. However, he knew he needed help with the assignment. So Joe went to the English Department to ask one of the teachers, Lisa Jones, for her help. He had met the English teachers the previous summer during a curriculum writing institute so he- knew which teacher he wanted to talk with. In addition, Lisa knew Joe well enough so that he could get straight answers from her.

Lisa was helpful to Joe. She gave him a book on letter writing, and she reviewed with him the standard format for writing a business letter. Lisa also explained to Joe how she taught letter writing to her students.

After reviewing the materials Lisa had shared with him, Joe assigned teams of students to write a business letter as a representative of an insurance company. In the letter, the students were asked to outline the safety violations in an auto mechanics business and then summarize how to remedy the violations. 'Me safety violations had to be real-world problems. In addition, Joe asked the students to write about hazards that might be extraordinarily dangerous.

Joe thought that the assignment would work well because it would provide an opportunity to find out what the students knew without making them take a test. It also gave the students a chance to review the safety materials. Joe assigned the students to work in groups of four to five. He felt this would help the students because they would be able to sit and discuss the safety issues as a team.

During the assignment, there was a lot of information interchanged among the students. The students discovered that they could write business letters. They also learned that nothing serious was going to happen to them if they misspelled a word or did not use the proper punctuation. In addition, they were successful at working together in groups. Joe felt that this was important because assignments in the auto mechanics lab require students to work together repairing cars. Further, when students enter the work world they know they will find themselves working with others.

After the students finished writing the rough drafts of the letters, Joe asked Lisa to review them for grammar while he reviewed them for content. Lisa was more than happy to help Joe by reviewing the letters. This surprised Joe. He thought Lisa would think the review of letters was another burden on her busy teaching schedule.

After the students revised their work, Joe received permission to allow the students to turn in their letters for an extra credit assignment in their English classes. But none of the students did this. Joe kept after them for a long time, but they would not turn in their letters for extra credit.

Joe later told his principal, Larry Graz, that the writing task was one of the best assignments he had ever made. He noted that the assignment opened up a number of what he called 'teachable moments.' For example, a group of students wrote a letter citing-a worker's smoking marijuana on the job. Joe was then able to discuss the implications of drug use in the work place.


Discussion Questions

1. Joe was looking for nontraditional ways of testing the students about safety procedures and he chose letter writing. What are some other nontraditional strategies Joe might have used that involve academic and vocational integration?

2. After Joe made the arrangements for the auto mechanics students to receive extra credit for the letter writing assignment in their English classes, none of the students submitted their work. What are some teaching strategies that might motivate these students to submit their work for extra credit in English?

3. What skills were developed through the letter writing assignment on safety that would not be developed through Joe's traditional way of teaching safety?

4. Joe knew he needed help teaching the students how to write business letters so he asked Lisa, an English teacher, to assist him. What are other resources Joe might have used to help him feel more comfortable teaching letter writing?

5. What did Lisa gain from working with Joe on the letter writing assignment?