Weather
and Climate 1 - Elements of climate
1
Atmosphere, weather and climate
-
The atmosphere
is an envelop of gases surrounding the earth.
-
It consists of nitrogen (N2)(78%),
oxygen (O2)(21%), argon (Ar)(0.9%), carbon dioxide (CO2)(0.03%)
and other gases.
-
The atmosphere is divided into
the troposphere, the stratosphere,
the mesosphere and the thermosphere.
-
The ozone
layer is a concentration of ozone (O3)
in a layer in the stratosphere, esp. in the altitude 20 - 25 km.
-
Ozone absorbs most of the short
wave solar radiation.
-
The depletion of ozone layer
-
increases the intensity of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation reaching the earth's surface and
-
increases the incidence of skin
cancer in humans.
-
The troposphere is of the most
direct importance to terrestrial life.
-
Most of the gases and water
vapour concentrate in the troposphere.
-
Almost all phenomena of weather
and climate take place in the troposphere.
-
Weather
and climate
-
The weather
is the state or condition of the troposphere in a particular place over
a short period of time, e.g. a few hours.
-
The climate
is the average weather condition of an area over a long period of time.
-
The elements
of weather are temperature, atmospheric
pressure, wind, humidity,
precipitation, sunshine
and visibility.
-
The elements of weather are
measured and recorded at a weather station.
-
In Hong Kong, the condition
of the weather is measured and recorded by the Hong
Kong Observatory.
-
A synoptic
chart (or weather chart or weather
map) records the main elements of the weather at a particular time.
Temperature
2
The global energy balance (or the global energy budget)
-
The main source of heat on the
earth's surface and in the atmosphere is the radiant
energy is emitted from the sun.
-
The average intensity of solar
radiation falling just outside the atmosphere is called the solar
constant = 1 380 W m-2 (watt per square metre).
-
Insolation
is the interception of solar energy (solar short
wave radiation) by an exposed surface.
-
Insolation is absorbed by land
and sea surfaces and changed into heat.
-
The lower atmosphere is then
warmed by terrestrial long wave radiation.
-
Heat flows from the earth's
surface to the atmosphere through conduction,
radiation and convection.
-
Water can also carry heat energy
into the atmosphere in the form of water vapour (latent
heat).
-
For every 100 units of incoming
solar radiation,
-
Total 31 units are lost to space
by earth-atmosphere system.
-
6 units are lost to space by
scattering.
-
21 units are reflected
back into space by clouds.
-
4 units are reflected back by
the earth's surface.
-
Total 69 units are absorbed
by earth-atmosphere system.
-
21 units are absorbed by molecules,
dust, water vapour and clouds.
-
48 units are absorbed by earth's
surface.
3 Factors
affecting temperature
3-1
Latitude
-
Temperature decreases from the
equator to the poles.
-
In higher latitudes (temperate
or polar regions),
-
The sun's rays travel a greater
distance through the atmosphere.
-
More solar energy is lost by
reflection, scattering and absorption by dust particles and water vapour.
-
Less solar energy reaches the
earth's surface.
-
The sun's rays fall at a smaller
angle of the mid-day sun.
-
The sun's rays reach the earth's
surface more obliquely and spread over a larger area.
-
The insolation is more scattered.
The intensity of solar energy is smaller.
-
In lower latitudes (equatorial
or tropical regions),
-
The sun's rays travel a shorter
distance through the atmosphere.
-
Less solar energy is lost by
reflection, scattering and absorption by dust particles and water vapour.
-
More solar energy reaches the
earth's surface.
-
The sun's rays fall at a larger
angle of the mid-day sun.
-
The sun's rays reach the earth's
surface more vertically and spread over a smaller area.
-
The insolation is more concentrated.
The intensity of solar energy is higher.
3-2 Prevailing
winds
-
The land heats up more quickly
than the sea in summer, but cools down more quickly in winter.
-
Onshore
winds raise the winter temperature but lower the summer temperature.
The annual temperature range is small.
-
Offshore
winds lower the winter temperature but raise the summer temperature.
The annual temperature range is large.
3-3 Altitude
-
Temperature decreases as altitude
increases.
-
The earth radiates the solar
energy back to the atmosphere in the form of terrestrial long wave radiation.
-
On higher altitudes,
-
the air is less dense and contains
fewer dust particles and water vapour;
-
this allows the heat from the
earth's surface escapes more rapidly, lowering the temperature.
-
Near the earth's surface,
-
the air is denser and contains
more dust particles and water vapour that absorb heat;
-
this prevents the heat from
the earth's surface from escaping.
-
Normally, temperature falls
by 6.5oC for every 1000 m increase in altitude. This is the
normal lapse rate.
-
Temperature
inversion is the condition in which temperature increases with altitude.
It may occur when
-
rapid nocturnal terrestrial
radiation cools the earth surface and therefore the air in contact with
the ground;
-
in Hong Kong during winter months,
when warm westerly winds blow above cold north-easterly winds;
-
warm air rises over cold air,
or cold air undercuts warm air at a cold front.
3-4 Distance
from the sea
-
The sea heats up and cools down
more slowly than the land because water is a poor conductor of heat.
-
In coastal areas,
-
Onshore winds bring moderating
effects of the sea. The annual temperature range is smaller.
-
In winter, cool onshore winds
lower the temperature of the coastal area.
-
In winter, warm onshore winds
raise the temperature of the coastal area.
-
The coastal area with maritime
influence has a moderate oceanic climate.
-
In inland areas,
-
Onshore winds blow for some
distance, the moderating effects weaken. The annual temperature range is
larger.
-
The inland area without
maritime influence has an extreme continental
climate.
3-5 Ocean
currents
-
Warm ocean
currents move from low latitudes to high latitudes carrying heat
from equatorial regions to polar regions.
-
Onshore winds are warmed when
they pass over a warm ocean current.
-
This raises the temperature
of coastal areas in mid-latitudes along the western margins of continents.
-
e.g. the warm North
Atlantic Drift on NW coast of Europe.
-
Coastal areas have mild winters
and ice-free ports.
-
Cold ocean
currents move from high latitudes to low latitudes.
-
Onshore winds are chilled when
they pass over a cold ocean current.
-
This lowers the temperature
of coastal areas in mid-latitudes along the eastern margins of continents.
-
e.g. the cold Labrador
Current on the NE coast of N America.
-
Coastal areas have cold winters
and foggy weather.
3-6 Aspect
-
In the N Hemisphere, S-facing
slopes are warmer than N-facing slopes because
-
the sun's rays fall at a larger
angle of the mid-day sun, and
-
the sun's rays spread over a
smaller area, the insolation is more concentrated.
-
In the S Hemisphere, S-facing
slopes are cooler than N-facing slopes because
-
the sun's rays fall at a smaller
angle of the mid-day sun, and
-
the sun's rays spread over a
larger area, the insolation is more scattered.
-
This factor is more marked in
high-latitudes than in low-latitudes where the angles of the mid-day sun
are high.
3-7 Nature
of the surface
-
A vegetated surface heats up
and cools down more slowly than a bare surface because heat is lost by
transpiration.
-
A snow surface reflects more
solar radiation than a rocky surface.
3-8 Cloud
cover
-
In the daytime, clouds shade
the sun's rays from reaching the earth's surface and the temperature is
lower.
-
At night, clouds reduce the
terrestrial radiation from leaving the earth's surface, and the temperature
is higher.
-
In equatorial
rain forests with dense cloud cover,
-
the daytime temperature rarely
exceeds 30oC, the night-time remains more or less the same,
-
the diurnal
range of temperature is small.
-
In tropical
deserts, the sky is cloudless,
-
the daytime temperature is very
high, the night-time temperature is very low,
-
the diurnal range of temperature
is large.
3-9 Length
of day
-
At the equator, there is always
12 hours of day and 12 hours of night.
-
As latitude increases, the day
gets longer in summer and gets shorter in winter.
-
The nearer to the equator, the
smaller the annual temperature range.
-
The nearer to the poles, the
larger the annual temperature range.
4 World
Distribution of Temperature
4-1
The spatial pattern of mean monthly average temperature of the world for
July and January
-
In general, temperatures decrease
from the equator to the poles in both January and July.
-
In the N Hemisphere, in January
(the northern winter),
-
The temperature is generally
lower because the sun is overhead at the S Hemisphere.
-
The continents are much cooler
than the adjacent oceans because land cools down faster than sea.
-
The isotherms bend southwards
over the continents, and northwards over the oceans.
-
There is marked northward bending
of isotherms along the west coast of Europe.
-
These coastal areas are warmer
due to the effects of warm ocean currents.
-
In the N Hemisphere, in July
(the southern summer),
-
The temperature is generally
higher because the sun is overhead at the N Hemisphere.
-
The continents are much warmer
than the adjacent oceans because land heats up faster than sea.
-
The isotherms bend northwards
over the continents, and southwards over the oceans.
-
There is marked southward bending
of isotherms along the west coast of N America and NE Asia.
-
These coastal areas are cooler
due to the effects of cold ocean currents.
-
In the S Hemisphere,
-
There is continuous mass of
ocean water and the land areas are relatively smaller.
-
This produces a smaller temperature
difference between land and sea.
-
Therefore the isotherm pattern
is less complicated and seasonal contrasts are not great than in the N
Hemisphere.
4-2 The
spatial pattern of mean annual range of temperature of the world
-
The annual range of temperature
in general increases from the equator to the poles.
-
The greatest range of temperature
is found in the continental interior over Eurasia and North America at
about 60oN.
-
Coastal areas have a small annual
range of temperature. Inland areas have a larger annual range of temperature.
5 Measuring
and recording temperature
5-1
Measuring temperature
-
Temperature is measured in oC
(degree Celsius).
-
Maximum
thermometer
-
A maximum
thermometer consists of a glass tube filled with mercury. There
is a constriction inside the tube.
-
When temperature rises, the
mercury expands.
-
When temperature falls, the
constriction prevents the mercury from retreating back to the bulb.
-
Therefore, the upper end of
the mercury colummn marks the maximum daily temperature.
-
The thermometer is reset by
shaking it gently with the bulb pointing downward.
-
Minimum
thermometer
-
A minimum
thermometer consists of a glass tube filled with alcohol. There
is a glass index inside the tube.
-
When temperature falls, the
alcohol contracts. The index is pulled by the surface tension of the meniscus
of the alcohol.
-
When temperature rises, the
alcohol expands but the glass index stays in the lowest position.
-
Therefore, the end of the index
near the meniscus marks the minimum daily temperature.
-
The thermometer is reset by
tilting the thermometer with the bulb end upwards.
-
Stevenson
Screen
-
The maximum-minimum thermometer
is placed horizontally on a frame in the middle of a Stevenson
Screen.
-
A Stevenson Screen is a wooden
box used to protect the thermometers from direct sunlight and rainfall.
-
The Stevenson Screen is painted
white to reflect solar radiation.
-
The roof of the Stevenson Screen
is double-boarded to ensure good insulation.
-
The sides of the Stevenson Screen
are louvered to allow good air ventilation.
-
The Stevenson Screen is placed
in an open and exposed position.
-
The Stevenson Screen is fixed
on a stand 1.05 m above ground level to avoid radiation from the earth's
surface.
-
The door faces north (in the
N Hemisphere) to prevent the sun shining into the Screen when readings
are taken.
5-2 Temperature
recordings
-
average
daily temperature = (the maximum temperature of the day + the minimum
temperature of the day) / 2
-
diurnal
range of temperature = (the maximum temperature of the day) - (the
minimum temperature of the day)
-
monthly
average temperature = (total of the average daily temperatures for
the month) / (number of days in the month)
-
mean monthly
average temperature = average of the monthly average temperature
for a particular month over 30 years
-
annual
temperature = (total of mean monthly temperatures for one year)
/ 12
-
mean annual
temperature = average of annual temperatures over 30 years
-
annual
range of temperature = (highest mean monthly temperature) - (lowest
mean monthly temperature)
5-3 Presentation
of temperature recordings
-
Mean monthly average temperature
can be presented on a climatic graph.
-
An isotherm
map shows the distribution of temperature over a large area.
-
An isotherm
is a line joining all points with the same temperature by interpolation.
-
All temperatures on the isotherms
are adjusted to sea level equivalents because temperature falls by 6.5oC
per 1000 m.
6 Pressure
-
The atmosphere is an envelop
of gases surrounding the earth.
-
Air has weight (because of the
pull of gravity) which exerts a pressure on the earth's surface.
-
Atmospheric
pressure is the weight of the atmosphere acting on per unit area
of the earth's surface.
7 Factors
affecting pressure
7-1
Altitude
-
Air pressure drops with increasing
height from the ground.
-
In the lower layer of the atmosphere,
the pressure is higher because:
-
The air has to support the weight
of a relatively thicker air layer above it.
-
The air is denser since it is
more compressed.
-
The drop of pressure is greater
at the lower atmosphere than that higher up.
-
At about 6 km from the ground,
pressure drops to only half of that at sea level.
-
At higher than 15 km from the
ground, the drop of pressure is almost negligible.
7-2 Temperature
-
When air is heated, it expands
and becomes less dense.
-
The warm air rises. An area
of low pressure is formed.
-
The low pressure over the equatorial
region is the result of high temperatures.
-
When air is cooled, it contracts
and becomes denser.
-
The cool air sinks. An area
of high pressure is formed.
-
The high pressure belt over
the polar regions is the result of low temperatures.
-
Pressure systems formed in this
way are said to be of thermal origin.
7-3 Movement
of the Air
-
Over the poles, the air is cold
and dense.
-
The cold air sinks. A high pressure
system is formed.
-
Air moves from the poles equatorwards
on the surface.
-
Air moves from a smaller surface
area to a larger surface area.
-
Air expands and becomes thinner.
-
At around 60oN and
S, the air rises, forming a low pressure system.
-
Over the equatorial latitudes,
the air is warm and less dense.
-
The warm air rises. A low pressure
system is formed.
-
Air moves from the equator polewards
in the upper level.
-
Air moves from a larger surface
area to a smaller surface area.
-
Air contracts and becomes denser.
-
At around 30oN and
S, the air sinks, forming a high pressure system.
-
Pressure systems formed in this
way are said to be of dynamic origin.
8 The
Planetary Pressure Systems
-
If the earth were stationary,
the high pressure and low pressure belts would be arranged in alternate
patterns.
-
Equatorial
Low pressure belt (or Doldrums) over
the equator
-
Sub-tropical
High pressure belts (or Horse Latitudes)
around 30oN and S
-
Sub-polar
Low pressure belts around 60oN and S
-
Polar
High pressure systems over the two Poles
-
However, the earth revolves
in its orbit around the sun.
-
The above description of world
pressure systems is true only when the sun is overhead at the equator.
-
The sun is overhead at the equator
only on the vernal equinox (21 March) and
the autumn equinox (22 September).
-
On the summer
solstice (21 June), the sun is overhead at the Tropic
of Cancer (23.5oN)
-
The Equatorial Low (the belt
of greatest heating) shifts 5 - 10oN of the equator at that
time.
-
Other pressure belts also shift
5 - 10o to the N.
-
On the winter
solstice (22 December), the sun is overhead at the Tropic
of Capricorn (23.5oS)
-
The Equatorial Low (the belt
of greatest heating) shifts 5 - 10oS of the equator at that
time.
-
Other pressure belts also shift
5 - 10o to the S.
9 Spatial
pattern of pressure in the world
-
If the earth surface were uniform,
a continuous pressure belts would be formed along almost the same latitudes.
-
However, the earth's surface
is made up of oceans and land masses which heat and cool differently.
-
In summer, low pressure cells
develop over the land and high pressure develop over the sea.
-
In winter, high pressure cells
develop over the land and low pressure develop over the sea.
-
In January, the Equatorial Low
shifts to the S of the equator. Low pressure cells are formed over the
southern continents.
-
In July, the Equatorial Low
shifts to the N of the equator and extends further N over the northern
continents.
-
The pressure belts are more
regular in the S Hemisphere because there is a large mass of ocean.
10
Measuring and recording air pressure
-
Atmospheric pressure is measured
in hectopascal (hPa).
-
At mean sea level in the mid-latitudes,
the atmospheric pressure is 1 013 hPa (i.e. 1 atm = 1013 hPa).
-
1 hPa = 100 Pa
(pascals) = 100 N m-2
(newtons per square metre) = 1 mb (millibar)
10-1 Mercury
Barometer
-
A simple
mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube of 1 m long.
-
The tube is filled with mercury
and is dipped upside down into a mercury container.
-
The mercury column in the tube
is held by the pressure of the air on the mercury surface of the container.
-
The greater the air pressure,
the higher the mercury column it can support.
-
A scale attached to the tube
gives the air pressure.
-
The average pressure at sea-level
is able to support a mercury column of 760 mm (i.e. 760 mm
Hg = 1013 hPa).
-
The same principle is used for
a mercury barometer.
10-2 Barograph
-
A barograph
has an inked nib connected to the barometer mechanism instead of a dial.
-
The barograph consists of a
revolving drum operated by clockwork. A recording chart is fixed around
the drum.
-
As the pressure changes, the
inked nib moves up and down and traces a continuous line graph on the chart.
-
A recording chart takes the
recordings of one week.
10-3 Aneroid
Barometer
-
An aneroid
barometer consists of a hollow, partial vacuum metal box with a
corrugated surface.
-
The upper wall of the chamber
is a flexible diaphragm that moves up and down as the outside air pressure
varies.
-
When air pressure rises, the
surface of the diaphragm is pressed down.
-
When air pressure drops, the
surface of the diaphragm bends upward.
-
The movement of the box surface
is transferred through a system of levers and springs to a pointer.
-
The scale printed on a disc
gives the pressure.
-
An aneroid barometer is not
so accurate as the mercury barometer. However, it is light and portable.
10-4 Presentation
of air pressure recordings
-
Air pressure is presented on
weather charts by isobars.
-
Isobars
are lines joining places with the same pressure drawn at a regular interval
of 2 or 4 hPa.
-
Isobar
maps show the distribution of air pressure.
10-5 Uses
of air pressure recordings
-
The change in pressure indicates
the weather condition.
-
A rising air pressure indicates
improving weather.
-
A falling air pressure indicates
unstable or rainy weather.
11
Wind
-
The difference in atmospheric
pressure between two places sets up a pressure gradient
which causes air to move.
-
Wind
is the (horizontal component of) movement of air in relation to the earth
surface.
-
Wind blows from an area of high
pressure towards an area of low pressure.
-
The wind speed depends on the
steepness of the pressure gradient.
-
Pressure gradient is shown by
the spacing of isobars.
-
Closely spaced isobars form
a steep pressure gradient and indicate a higher wind speed.
-
Widely spaced isobars form a
gentle pressure gradient and indicate a slower wind speed.
12
Deflection of wind direction
-
If the earth were stationary,
the winds would blow directly from an area of high pressure to an area
of low pressure.
-
The earth, however, rotates
from W to E.
-
The velocity of the eastward
movement is the greatest at the equator (1 600 km h-1) and decreases
towards the poles (0 km h-1).
-
A body of air over the equator
has a eastward movement as the equator, 1 600 km h-1.
-
As a body of air moves polewards,
it is travelling in an eastern direction faster than the earth beneath
it.
-
As a body of air moves equatorwards,
it is travelling in an eastern direction slower than the earth beneath
it.
-
Therefore, the body of air is
deflected to the right in the N Hemisphere and to the left in the S Hemisphere.
-
This is called the Coriolis
effect (or Coriolis force) that causes the winds
-
to deflect to the right in the
N Hemisphere and
-
to deflect to the left in the
S Hemisphere.
-
Ferrel's
law states that Any object moving horizontally
in the N Hemisphere tends to be deflected to the right.
-
Ballot's
law states that in the N Hemisphere Stand
with your back to the wind and the low pressure will be toward your left.
General
Circulation of the Atmosphere (The spatial pattern of prevailing wind of
the world)
13
The Planetary Wind Systems
13-1
Trades
-
Trade winds blow
-
from the Sub-tropical Highs
(around 30oN and S)
-
to the Equatorial Low (over
the equator).
-
Due to the deflection of wind
direction, they are
-
the NE
trades in the N Hemisphere and
-
the SE
trades in the S Hemisphere.
-
However, as pressure belts shift
in summer and winter, following the apparent "movement" of the overhead
sun:
-
In the northern summer, SE trades
turn to a NE direction as SW trades after crossing the equator.
-
In the northern winter, NE trades
turn to a SE direction as NW trades after crossing the equator.
13-2 Westerlies
-
The westerlies blow between
40 and 60oN and S,
-
from the Sub-tropical Highs
(around 30oN and S)
-
to the Sub-polar Lows (around
60oN and S).
-
Due to the deflection of wind
direction, they are
-
the south-westerlies
in the N Hemisphere and
-
the north-westerlies
in the S Hemisphere.
-
In the N Hemisphere, there are
great land masses and high mountains.
-
The south-westerlies vary more
in strength and direction.
-
Hence the south-westerlies are
also called the south westerly variables.
-
In the S Hemisphere, there is
a continuous stretch of ocean water between 40 and 60oS.
-
The northwesterlies are very
strong and persistent.
-
Sailors call these latitudes
"roaring forties", "furious fifties" and "screaming sixties".
13-3 Polar
Winds
-
Very cold polar winds blow between
60 and 90oN and S,
-
from the Polar Highs (over the
poles)
-
to the Sub-polar Lows (around
60oN and S).
-
Due to the deflection of wind
direction, they are
-
the NE
polar winds in the N Hemisphere and
-
the SE
polar winds in the S Hemisphere.
14
The monsoon winds
14-1
Monsoons
-
Monsoons
are large scale wind systems which the wind direction is completely
reversed in summer and in winter.
-
Monsoon climate has clear seasonal
changes: wet summer, dry winter.
-
Monsoon winds are most developed
in Asia (the Indian Sub-continent, SE Asia, China and Japan).
-
In summer,
-
The land surface is heated up
more quickly. The land is warmer than the adjacent seas.
-
A low pressure centre forms
over the land. A high pressure centre forms over the seas.
-
On-shore winds are usually moist.
-
In winter,
-
The land surface cools more
quickly. The land is cooler than the adjacent seas.
-
A high pressure centre forms
over the land. A low pressure centre forms over the seas.
-
Offshore winds are usually dry.
14-2 The
Monsoon system of Asia
-
In northern winter, the Asian
land mass cools rapidly.
-
The interior of the Asian continent
forms an intense high pressure area.
-
The N of Australia forms an
intense low pressure area (where it is the southern summer).
-
Dry winter
NW monsoon winds blow from N China and Japan, NE monsoon winds from
S China and SE Asia.
-
After crossing the equator,
the winds are deflected to become the NW monsoon winds into N Australia.
-
In northern summer, the Asian
land mass is intensely heated.
-
The interior of the Asian continent
forms an intense low pressure area.
-
The central part of Australia
forms an intense high pressure area (where it is the southern winter).
-
Dry winter SE monsoon winds
blow from the Australian high pressure.
-
After crossing the equator,
the SE winds are deflected to become the SW monsoon.
-
They continue to blow into Asian
low pressure as the wet summer SE monsoon
winds.
Minor
Circulations of the Atmosphere
15
Anticyclones
-
An anticyclone is an area of
HIGH pressure which develops when air descends.
-
On weather maps, it is represented
by a series of closed isobars circular or oval in shape.
-
Winds blow from the high pressure
centre outwards, due to the deflection of wind direction,
-
in a clockwise direction in
the N Hemisphere and
-
in an anticlockwise direction
in the S Hemisphere.
-
An anticyclone covers a wide
area, 1 000 - 2 000 m across.
-
An anticyclone moves very slowly
or is stationary for several weeks.
-
An anticyclone usually gives
fine weather.
-
Air is descending. Condensation
is unlikely to take place. Cloud and rain do not develop.
-
At night, the cloudless sky
allows rapid radiation. Dew and frost
may be formed.
-
Winds are light because the
pressure gradient is gentle.
-
In summer, the days are warm,
dry and sunny.
-
In winter, the days are cold,
dry and stable weather dominates.
16
Cyclones
-
A cyclone
is an area of LOW pressure which develops
when air rises.
-
On weather maps, it is represented
by a series of closed isobars circular or oval in shape.
-
Winds blow into the low pressure
centre, due to the deflection of wind direction,
-
in an anticlockwise direction
in the N Hemisphere and
-
in a clockwise direction in
the S Hemisphere.
-
A cyclone is usually smaller
than an anticyclone in extent.
-
A cyclone moves faster is rarely
stationary.
-
A cyclone usually gives unsettled
weather.
-
Air is rising. Condensation
takes place. Clouds and rain develops. Thunderstorms are common.
-
Winds are strong because the
pressure gradient is steep.
-
There are two types of cyclones,
-
in tropical latitudes, tropical
cyclone (cyclone) and
-
in temperate latitudes,
temperate depression (depression).
16-1 Tropical
Cyclones
-
A tropical
cyclone is a low pressure area formed over the tropical oceans in
latitudes 5-15oN and S.
-
Tropical cyclones will not develop
within 5oN and S where the Coriolis effect is the weakest.
-
Tropical cyclones only develop
over seas where plentiful supply of moisture provides energy for the cyclone.
-
Tropical cyclones are also known
as
-
typhoons
in the western Pacific and the China Seas,
-
hurricanes
in North America,
-
willy-willies
in northern Australia.
-
Life cycle of tropical cyclone
-
A tropical cyclone develops
over the tropical ocean where hot and humid air rises rapidly when
-
the sea surface is intensely
heated up, or
-
northerly and southerly trade
winds converge in the inter-tropical convergence
zone.
-
An area of low pressure develops.
-
Winds blow into the low pressure
centre, due to the deflection of wind direction,
-
in an anticlockwise direction
in the N Hemisphere and
-
in a clockwise direction in
the S Hemisphere.
-
The air gets warm and up-thrusts
rapidly in a spiral path.
-
The air rises and cools. Water
vapour condenses.
-
Towering cumulonimbus
clouds form. Latent heat of condensation
is released.
-
The energy released causes further
heating and uplifting.
-
This draws in more surrounding
warm moist air which forms more clouds and releases more latent heat.
-
This strengthens the cyclonic
circulation.
-
Huge cumulonimbus brings torrential
rain.
-
Once the tropical cyclone moves
inland, it weakens and dies out quickly because
-
it loses its source of energy
(warm, moist air which provides latent heat),
and
-
mountain barriers reduce the
speed of the winds.
-
Structure of tropical cyclones
-
The small centre of the tropical
cyclone is the "eye", characterised by cool
and descending air and calm condition.
-
The uplifted air flows outward
from the centre at higher levels. Moist air from the surrounding sea surface
draws in.
-
A vortex,
with spiral ascending currents of strong gale,
surrounds the eye. Nimbocumulus extends to
great height.
-
Movements of tropical cyclones
-
Tropical cyclones generally
move westward following the path of the trade winds.
-
Tropical cyclones may be deflected
to the right in the N Hemisphere by the Coriolis effect.
-
High wind velocity accompanied
by heavy rainfall may cause great damage and destruction to buildings and
vegetation.
16-2 Temperate
depression
-
A temperate
depression is a low pressure area formed around 60oN
and S.
-
Life cycle of a temperate depression
-
Stage 1
-
Cold, dry polar air moves W.
Warm, moist tropical air moves E.
-
The two air masses meet. A stationary
front forms.
-
Stage 2
-
A small bulge or wave develops
in the front due to friction. As the bulge develops, pressure at its centre
falls.
-
Warm air pushes into the wave.
Cold air pushes into the warm air at the rear of the wave.
-
Winds blow into the low pressure
centre, due to the deflection of wind direction,
-
in an anticlockwise direction
in the N Hemisphere and
-
in a clockwise direction in
the S Hemisphere.
-
Stage 3
-
The wave continues to develop.
-
The warm air, being lighter,
rises over the cold air. At the front of the wave, a warm
front develops.
-
The cold air undercuts the warm
air. At the rear of the wave, a cold front
develops.
-
The warm air between the two
fronts is called a warm sector.
-
Stage 4
-
The cold front advances faster
than the warm front and finally overtakes the warm front.
-
The two fronts merge together,
an occluded front develops.
-
Stage 5
-
The warm air in the warm sector
is completely uplifted and is lost in the upper air.
-
The cyclone begins to die out.
-
Changes in weather caused by
a temperate depression
-
During the passage of a warm
front
-
The temperature rises.
-
The air pressure drops.
-
Clouds develops, and rain is
getting heavier.
-
In the warm sector
-
The temperature is high.
-
The air pressure is low.
-
The humidity is high, rain stops.
-
During the passage of a cold
front
-
The temperature drops.
-
The air pressure rises.
-
Cumulonimbus
brings heavy rain and thunderstorms.
-
The sloping boundary of the
cold front is steeper than that of the warm front.
-
The precipitation along the
cold front is much heavier and shorter in duration than that along the
warm front.
-
After the passage of the depression
-
The temperature is low.
-
The pressure is high.
-
The sky is clear.
17
Air masses and fronts
17-1
Air masses and fronts
-
An air
mass is a large body of air which has a fairly uniform temperature
and humidity.
-
An air mass develops over an
extensive surface which is physically uniform, e.g. oceans, deserts.
-
The characteristics of an air
mass are derived from the region over which it formed.
-
When the air mass moves away,
even over a considerable distance, its characteristics retain.
-
As the air mass passes over
an area, it modifies the weather of the area.
-
Air masses are classified according
to their place of origin.
-
Continents or oceans
-
continental
c - dry air mass formed over the continents
-
maritime
m - moist air mass formed over the oceans
-
Latitudes
-
Arctic
A - Arctic
ocean and fringing land
-
Antarctic
AA - Antarctica
-
Polar
P - 50-60oN or S (continents
and oceans)
-
Tropical
T - 20-35oN or S (continents and
oceans)
-
Equatorial
E - near the equator (oceans)
-
In spring, the maritime
tropical (mT) air mass moves over Hong
Kong. It is warm and moist.
-
The surface of Hong Kong is
cooler than the warm air.
-
The bottom of the air is cooled
to form advection fog.
17-2 Air
masses and fronts
-
A front
is the surface of contact between two unlike air masses develop when the
two unlike air masses meet.
-
Polar
front is formed by the meeting of a cold polar air mass and a warm
tropical air mass.
18
Local winds
18-1
Sea breezes and land breezes
-
Sea breezes
-
During the day, the land is
heated more rapidly than the sea. The land is warmer than the sea.
-
A high pressure area develops
locally over the sea.
-
A gentle sea
breeze blows from the sea to the land.
-
Land breeze
-
At night, the land is cooled
more rapidly than the sea. The land is cooler than the sea.
-
A high pressure area develops
locally over the land.
-
A gentle land
breeze blows from the land to the sea.
-
Land and sea breezes moderate
the temperature of the coastal areas.
18-2 Anabatic
winds and katabatic winds
-
Anabatic
winds
-
During the day, the mountain
slopes are intensely heated.
-
Air is heated, expands and rises.
-
A low pressure area develops
locally on higher slopes.
-
A warm anabatic
wind (or valley wind) blows from the
valley floor up to the mountain slopes.
-
Katabatic
winds
-
At night, the mountain slopes
lose heat by radiation rapidly.
-
Air is cooled, contracts and
descends.
-
A high pressure area develops
locally on higher slopes.
-
A cold katabatic
wind (or mountain wind) blows from
the mountain slopes down to the valley floor.
-
The cold katabatic wind may
lead to temperature inversion.
18-3 Fohn,
Chinook etc.
-
Fohn winds,
chinook winds etc. are
warm, dry winds which descends on the leeward side of a mountain.
-
Fohn wind
is on the northern slopes of the Alps.
-
Chinook
wind is on the eastern slopes of the Rockies.
-
When air meets a mountain, it
is forced to rise up the windward slope of the mountain.
-
Unsaturated air cools at the
dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR)
10oC per 1000 m.
-
Air becomes saturated. Water
vapour condenses into water droplets.
-
Clouds and heavy rain are formed
on the windward slope.
-
Saturated air cools at the saturated
adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) 5oC
per 1000 m.
-
After the air crosses over the
mountain, the air has lost most of its moisture.
-
Dry air descends the leeward
slope under the force of gravity.
-
The air is compressed and warmed
adiabatically at the dry adiabatic lapse rate
(DALR) 10oC per 1000 m.
19
Measurement and recording of wind
-
Wind vane
-
The wind direction is the compass
point from which it blows, e.g. a north
wind is one which blows from N to S.
-
A wind
vane is used to measure wind direction.
-
A wind vane consists of a pointer
which rotates freely on a vertical shaft.
-
A framework with the four directions
(N, E, S and W) is fixed on the vertical shaft.
-
When wind blows, the pointer
rotates and points into the wind.
-
A wind vane should be mounted
at least 10 m above the ground surface and should not be obstructed by
buildings.
-
Anemometer
-
The wind speed is measured in
m s-1 or km
h -1.
-
An anemometer
is used to measure wind speed.
-
An anemometer consists of three
cups fixed to three metal arms on a rotating spindle.
-
When wind blows, the cups rotate.
The speed of revolution is recorded by a meter.
-
The wind speed can be estimated
by visual observation using the Beaufort Scale.
-
Presenting wind direction and
wind speed on weather charts
-
On weather charts, the wind
direction and wind are recorded by an arrow.
-
The arrow shaft shows the wind
direction which points towards the weather station.
-
The arrow feathers (fleche)
or pennents (solid triangle) shows the wind speed.
-
a half feature = 2.5 m s-1
-
a full feather = 5 m s-1
-
a pennent = 25 m s-1
-
A circle represents calm or
light variable wind.
-
Wind rose
-
A wind
rose shows the frequency of occurrence of winds at a certain place
over a period time, e.g. a month.
-
A wind rose consists of a small
circle from which bars radiate.
-
The direction of the bar shows
the direction of wind in compass point.
-
The length of the bar indicates
the frequency of wind from that direction.
-
The number of calm days or the
percentage of calm days is given in the circle.
20
Humidity
-
Humidity
is the amount of moisture in the air, which
comes from evaporation of water from seas, lakes and ground.
-
Absolute
humidity is the actual weight of water vapour in the air, measured
in g m-3 (g
of water vapour per m3 of air).
-
The maximum amount of water
vapour mass of air can hold is its capacity.
Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air.
-
Relative
humidity is the percentage of the absolute humidity to the capacity,
e.g.
-
Air temperature at 30oC
has a capacity of about 30 g of water vapour per m3 of air.
-
Suppose the absolute humidity
of a mass of air at 30oC is 25 g m-3.
-
The air can still hold more
moisture.
-
The relative humidity is 25
/ 30 = 83%.
-
Suppose the mass of air is chilled
to 26.5oC.
-
The absolute humidity of 25
g m-3 is sufficient to make the air saturated.
-
The relative humidity is 100%.
This temperature is called the dew point.
-
Water vapour changes into water
droplets in condensation when there is
-
any additional moisture, or
-
further cooling of the air below
the dew point.
21
Measuring Humidity
-
Humidity is measured a hygrometer.
-
One type of hygrometer is the
wet and dry bulb thermometer.
-
It consists of a wet-bulb
thermometer and a dry-bulb thermometer
which are kept in a Stevenson Screen.
-
The dry bulb thermometer is
an ordinary thermometer which reads normal air temperature.
-
The wet bulb thermometer has
its bulb wrapped by a piece of wet cloth, e.g. muslin, dipped in water
in a container.
-
When water evaporates from the
wet cloth, heat is lost. The temperature is lowered.
-
The temperature difference is
used to find the relative humidity using the hygrometric
tables, e.g.
-
If the dry bulb is 26oC
and the wet bulb is 22oC, the wet bulb
depression (temperature difference) is 4oC.
-
The hydrometric table shows
that the relative humidity is 69%.
-
If the air is drier, the sky
is clear or cloudless.
-
Water evaporates faster. There
is a greater heat loss.
-
The wet bulb depression is greater.
The relative humidity is lower.
-
If the air is wetter, it may
be foggy or rainy.
-
Water evaporates slower. There
is a smaller heat loss.
-
The wet bulb depression is smaller.
The relative humidity is higher.
-
If the air is saturated,
the air is very wet.
-
Water does not evaporate. There
is no heat lost.
-
The wet bulb and dry bulb thermometers
read the same. The relative humidity is 100%.
22
Condensation
22-1
Fog
-
Characteristics of fog
-
Fog
is a dense mass of water droplets near the land or sea surfaces.
-
The occurrence of fog is associated
with low visibility, high relative humidity, lack of sunshine and gentle
or no wind.
-
Fog may be dispersed by evaporation
when temperature rises during the day, or when there is strong wind.
-
There are two types of fog:
radiation fog and advection
fog.
-
Advection
fog is common in Hong Kong in spring when
-
the warm moist southerly wind
moves over the land or sea surface which is still cold in early spring,
or
-
the warm moist southerly wind
meets the cool dry northerly wind.
-
Formation of radiation
fog
-
At night, the calm (no wind)
and clear (no cloud) sky causes rapid terrestrial radiation and rapid cooling
on the ground.
-
As there is no wind, the moist
air is in contact with the cold ground long enough to be chilled to the
dew point.
-
Water vapour condenses on hygroscopic
nuclei (or condensation nuclei, e.g.
dust and smoke) in the air.
-
Formation of advection
fog
-
A warm moist air passes over
a cooler land or sea surface.
-
The lower layer of the warm
moist air in contact with the cooler surface is chilled to the dew point.
-
Water vapour condenses on hygroscopic
nuclei (or condensation nuclei, e.g.
dust and smoke) in the air.
22-2 Dew
-
Characteristics of dew
-
Dew
is the deposit of water droplets on the ground surface.
-
Dew drops disappear through
evaporation shortly after sunrise.
-
In Hong Kong, dew is common
in cool nights in spring and autumn.
-
Formation of dew
-
At night, the calm (no wind)
and clear (no cloud) sky causes rapid terrestrial radiation and rapid cooling
on the ground.
-
The moist air near the ground
is cooled below the dew point which is above
0oC.
-
Water vapour condenses into
water droplets as dew on the ground surface, e.g. on leaf surfaces.
22-3 Frost
-
Characteristics of frost
-
Frost
is the deposit of ice crystals on the ground surface.
-
Frost in early spring may damage
crops.
-
In Hong Kong, frost occurs occasionally
on higher grounds in late winter with the arrival of strong cold northerly
winds.
-
Formation of frost
-
At night, the calm (no wind)
and clear (no cloud) sky causes rapid terrestrial radiation and rapid cooling
on the ground.
-
The moist air near the ground
is cooled below the dew point which is below
0oC.
-
Water vapour condenses into
ice crystals as frost on the ground surface, e.g. on leaf surfaces.
22-4 Clouds
-
Cloud
is a visible mass of water droplets or ice particles suspended in the upper
level air.
-
Formation of clouds
-
When air rises, the air is cooled.
-
When the air reaches the condensation
level, the air is cooled to the dew point.
-
The height of condensation level
depends on the temperature and humidity of the rising air.
-
The condensation level will
be lower if the air is wetter and warmer.
-
The air saturates and the relative
humidity is 100%.
-
Water vapour condenses into
water droplets which suspend in the air.
-
The water droplets gather to
form clouds.
-
Types of clouds classified according
to forms
-
Cumuliform clouds are vertical
tower clouds.
-
Cumuliform clouds are formed
when the air rises by strong convection currents.
-
Cumuliform clouds are common
in hot summers.
-
Stratiform clouds are sheet
clouds in horizontal layers.
-
Stratiform clouds are formed
when the air rises over mountains, or over the cold air along a warm front.
-
Stratiform clouds are common
in cold winters.
-
Types of clouds classified according
to height
-
High clouds
are clouds between 6 000 and 12 000 m.
-
High clouds include cirrus
(Ci), cirrocumulus
(Cc) and cirrostratus
(Cs).
-
High clouds are thin, white
and fleecy.
-
High clouds indicate fine weather.
-
Medium
clouds are clouds between 2 000 and 6 000 m.
-
Altocumulus (Ac)
are patches of globular masses.
-
Altostratus (As)
are greyish and produce snow or rain.
-
Medium clouds indicate fair
weather.
-
Low clouds
are clouds below 2 000 m.
-
Cumulus
(Cu) and stratocumulus
(Sc) are white and indicate fair weather.
-
Stratus
(St) and nimbostratus
(Ns) are greyish and indicate bad weather.
-
Cumulonimbus
(Cb) are formed by strong rising convection
currents on hot summer days.
-
Cumulonimbus are high vertical
clouds at 500 m at the base and extend to 9 000 m to 12 000 m.
-
Cumulonimbus often look like
a flat-topped anvil since the air at the upper
level often spreads out.
-
Cumulonimbus indicate unstable
weather with torrential rain, hail, gust, thunder and lightning.
23
Precipitation
23-1
Rain
-
Rain
is a form of precipitation consisting of tiny water droplets which coalesce
into larger droplets of 1 to 5 mm in diameter.
-
Water vapour condenses
into water droplets if the dew point at the
condensation level is above 0oC.
23-2 Snow
-
Snow
is a form of precipitation consisting of tiny ice crystals which coalesce
into larger snowflakes.
-
Water vapour sublimes
into ice crystals if the dew point at the
condensation level is below 0oC.
-
If the ground temperature is
below 0oC, the snowflakes fall onto the ground as snow.
23-3 Hail
-
Characteristics of hail
-
Hail
is a form of precipitation consisting of small ice pellets called hailstones
of 5 to 50 mm in diameter.
-
A hailstone has alternate concentric
layers of clear ice and opaque ice.
-
Formation of hail
-
Strong rising convection
current produces cumulonimbus.
-
Water droplets are carried upwards
by violent up-draughts to higher level which is below 0oC.
-
The water droplets freeze as
clear ice crystals.
-
Strong up-draughts carry the
ice crystals to an even higher level.
-
Super-cooled
water droplets freeze on the ice crystals. The ice pellets accret
an addition "shell" of ice.
-
The ice pellets rise and fall
many times until they grow heavy enough. Then they fall on the ground as
hailstones.
24
Types of Rainfall
24-1
Convectional rain
-
Occurrence of convectional rain
-
Convectional rain occurs in
hot, wet equatorial and tropical regions.
-
In higher latitudes, convectional
rain occurs in continental interiors in hot summers.
-
Formation of convectional rain
-
The land is intensely heated.
Surface air in contact with it gets hot by conduction.
-
Hot air rises and expands as
strong convection currents.
-
When air rises, the air is cooled.
When the air reaches the condensation level,
the air is cooled to the dew point.
-
The air saturates
and the relative humidity is 100%.
-
Water vapour condenses into
water droplets which suspend in the air. The water droplets gather to form
clouds.
-
Raindrops are formed by coalescence
of water droplets.
-
Characteristics of convectional
rain
-
Convectional rain is torrential
rain of short duration, often in the afternoon.
-
Convectional rain is often associated
with cumulonimbus and thunderstorms.
-
Strong rising convection current
produces cumulonimbus.
-
Water droplets are carried up
and down by the convection current.
-
Negative charges are collected
at the bottom and positive charges at the top of the cloud.
-
The ground surface has positive
charges.
-
As the charges grow, a strong
electric potential difference develops.
-
Discharge takes place as lightning
within the clouds or between the cloud and the ground.
-
The air is heated up suddenly
by the lightning and expands explosively causing thunder.
24-2 Relief
rain (orographic rain)
-
Occurrence of relief rain
-
Relief rain occurs in coastal
areas where the trend of mountain runs parallel to the coast.
-
The windward
slope is the rain-bearing side.
-
Formation of relief rain
-
Warm moist onshore
wind meets coastal mountain.
-
Air rises along the windward
slope and expands.
-
When air rises, the air is cooled.
When the air reaches the condensation level,
the air is cooled to the dew point.
-
The air saturates
and the relative humidity is 100%.
-
Water vapour condenses into
water droplets which suspend in the air. The water droplets gather to form
clouds.
-
Raindrops are formed by coalescence
of water droplets.
24-3 Cyclonic
rain (frontal rain)
-
Cyclonic rain occurs in temperate
latitudes but it may extend to lower latitudes in winter.
-
Formation of cyclonic rain
-
Warm, moist tropical air mass
meets a dry, cold polar air mass. A warm polar front forms between the
two air masses.
-
The cold polar air is denser
and heavier. It remains close to the ground.
-
The warm tropical air is less
dense and lighter. It rises over the polar air and expands.
-
When air rises, the air is cooled.
When the air reaches the condensation level,
the air is cooled to the dew point.
-
The air saturates and the relative
humidity is 100%.
-
Water vapour condenses into
water droplets which suspend in the air. The water droplets gather to form
clouds.
25
Factors affecting rainfall
-
Temperature
and pressure
-
Areas with high temperatures
have abundant rainfall.
-
Warm air forms low pressure.
-
Air rises, expands and is cooled.
Water vapour condenses into water droplets to form cloud and rain.
-
Areas with low temperatures
have little rainfall.
-
Cold air forms high pressure.
-
Air sinks, compresses and is
warmed. This discourages condensation and the formation of cloud and rain.
-
Winds
-
On-shore winds are usually wet
and bring rain.
-
Off-shore winds are usually
dry and do not bring rain.
-
Distance
from the sea
-
Coastal areas are wet because
onshore wet winds bring rain.
-
Inland areas are dry because
onshore winds reaching there have already lost their moisture and do not
bring rain.
-
Ocean
currents
-
Onshore winds are wet when they
pass over a warm ocean current.
-
Onshore winds are dry when they
pass over a cold ocean current.
-
Relief
-
When onshore winds are forced
to climb over a mountain along the coast, the windward
slope is the rain-bearing side.
-
The coastal mountain acts as
a climatic barrier, the leeward slope is the
rainshadow area.
26
Spatial distribution of rainfall in the Northern Hemisphere
-
Regions with rainfall all year
-
Equatorial
climate
-
The equatorial region has heavy
rainfall throughout the year.
-
The Equatorial
Low pressure belt is formed.
-
Throughout the year, rain is
brought by
-
convection uplift due to strong
heating, and
-
rain is brought by convergence
of trade winds.
-
Warm temperate
east margin climate
-
The east coast in warm temperate
region has rainfall throughout the year with a summer
maximum.
-
In summer, rain is brought by
onshore monsoon winds.
-
In winter, rain is brought by
temperate cyclones.
-
Cool temperate
west margin climate
-
The west coast in cool temperate
region has rainfall throughout the year with a winter
maximum.
-
Throughout the year, rain is
brought by onshore westerlies.
-
In winter, rain is brought by
temperate cyclones.
-
Regions with rainfall mainly
in summer
-
Tropical
monsoon climate
-
The east coast in tropical region
has a wet summer and a dry winter.
-
In summer, rain is brought by
onshore monsoon winds.
-
In winter, offshore monsoon
winds are dry.
-
Tropical
continental climate
-
The interior and west coasts
in tropical regions has a wet summer and a dry winter.
-
In summer, rain is brought by
convection uplift due to strong heating.
-
In winter, winds are out-blowing
and dry because the Subtropical High pressure
belts extend over these region.
-
Cool temperate
east margin climate
-
The east coast in cool temperate
region has a wet summer and a dry winter.
-
In summer, rain is brought by
convection uplift due to strong heating, and onshore monsoon winds.
-
In winter, offshore monsoon
winds are dry.
-
Regions with rainfall mainly
in winter
-
Warm temperate
west margin climate (or Mediterranean climate)
-
The west coast of warm temperate
region has a dry summer and a wet winter.
-
In summer, offshore trade winds
are dry.
-
In winter, rain is brought by
onshore westerlies and depressions because the westerlies shift southwards.
-
Regions with scanty rainfall
all year
-
Tropical
desert climate
-
The tropical desert is dry throughout
the year.
-
Offshore trade winds are out-blowing
and dry because of the Subtropical High pressure
belt.
-
Temperate
continental climate
-
The continental interior of
temperate region is dry throughout the year.
-
It is dry because of continentality
and rainshadow effect.
-
Arctic
climate
-
The polar region is dry throughout
the year.
-
Polar winds are out-blowing
and dry because of the Polar High pressure
belt.
27
Measuring and recording of rainfall
-
Instrument for measuring rainfall
-
Rainfall is recorded by a rain
gauge.
-
A rain
gauge consists of metal cylinder containing a glass bottle.
-
There is a metal funnel on top
of the cylinder; its diameter may be 128 mm, 204 mm or 254 mm.
-
When it rains, rain water drops
a into the glass bottle through the metal funnel.
-
The water is measured daily
by a measuring cylinder. Rainfall is measured in mm.
-
The measuring cylinder is tapered
so that a small amount of rainfall can be measured.
-
If the amount of rain water
is too small to be measured, it is recorded as a "‘trace".
-
Installation of the rain gauge
-
The rain gauge is placed in
an open space away from trees, walls and buildings.
-
The outer case is half sunk
into the ground to prevent it from being knocked over.
-
The funnel rim is 30 cm above
the ground surface to prevent the rain from splashing into the gauge from
the ground.
-
Rainfall recordings
-
monthly
rainfall = total daily rainfall of the month
-
mean monthly
rainfall = average rainfall of a particular month for a long period
of time, e.g. 30 years
-
annual
rainfall = total monthly rainfall of the year
-
mean annual
rainfall = average annual rainfall for a long period of time, e.g.
30 years
-
Presentation of rainfall recordings
-
Mean monthly rainfall can be
presented on a climatic graph.
-
A rainfall
map shows the distribution of rainfall over a large area.
-
An isohyets
is a line joining all points with the same rainfall by interpolation, usually
drawn at regular intervals, e.g. 25 mm.
Weather
and Climate 2 - Climate of Hong Kong
28
Climate of Hong Kong
28-1
Temperature
-
Hong Kong lies just within the
tropics, on latitude 22o20' N.
-
Hong Kong has a subtropical
climate with a hot summer and a cool winter.
-
Mean annual
temperature is 23.0oC. (1961-1990)
-
The hottest month is July. The
mean monthly temperature is 28.8oC.
-
The coolest month is January.
The mean monthly temperature is 15.8oC.
-
Hong Kong is located on the
SE coast of Asia.
-
The maritime
influence has a moderating effect on temperatures.
-
The mean
annual range of temperature is small, 28.8oC - 15.8oC
= 13oC.
-
The mean
diurnal range of temperature is small, below 6oC.
28-2 Atmospheric
pressure and wind
-
The highest atmospheric pressure
is 1020.2 hPa in December and January.
-
The lowest atmospheric pressure
is 1005.1 hPa in August.
-
Pressure systems affecting Hong
Kong
-
High pressure systems affecting
Hong Kong include anticyclone and ridge of high pressure.
-
Low pressure systems affecting
Hong Kong include tropical cyclone and trough of low pressure.
-
Monsoon
system
-
The prevailing
wind in winter is NE.
-
The prevailing wind in July
is SW.
-
Tropical
cyclone (typhoon)
-
About 5 to 6 tropical cyclones
affect Hong Kong each year.
-
Tropical cyclones affecting
Hong Kong are formed over W Pacific Ocean and S China Sea in summer.
-
The tropical cyclones generally
follow a parabolic track and move W or WNW and later turn NE.
-
Different names are used for
tropical cyclones by Hong Kong Observatory according to their intensity.
-
Tropical depression (T.D.) wind
speed < 63. km h-1
-
Tropical storm (T.S.) wind speed
63 - 87 km h-1
-
Severe tropical storm (S.T.S.)
wind speed 88 - 117 km h-1
-
Typhoon (T.) wind speed > =
118 km h-1
-
Tropical
Cyclone Warning Signals
-
1 Stand
By
A tropical cyclone is centred
within 800 km of Hong Kong and may later affect Hong Kong.
-
3 Strong
Wind
Strong wind with a speed
of 41-62 km h-1 and gusts which may exceed 100 km h-1.
-
8NW,
8SW, 8NE and 8SE Gale or Storm
Gale or storm with a speed
of 63-117 km h-1 from the quarter indicated and gusts which
may exceed 180 km h-1.
-
9 Increasing
Gale or Storm
Gale or Storm with a speed
of 88-117 km h-1 expected to increase significantly in strength.
-
10 Hurricane
Hurricane force wind with
a speed > = 118 km h-1 and gusts which may exceed 220 km h-1.
28-3 Rainfall
-
Mean annual rainfall is 2214.3
mm.
-
The seasonal distribution of
rainfall in Hong Kong
-
About 80% of the rain falls
between May and September.
-
The monsoon system characterises
a summer maximum.
-
There is no month which is completely
without rain.
-
The wettest month is August.
The mean monthly rainfall is 391.4 mm. Rain falls about four days out of
seven.
-
The driest month is January.
The mean monthly rainfall is 23.4 mm. Rain falls about six days in the
month.
-
The spatial distribution of
rainfall in Hong Kong
-
The wettest parts are on the
windward slopes of Tai Mo Shan, Lantau Peak, Ma On Shan and Pat Sin Range.
-
The NW parts of Hong Kong are
rainshadow areas of these mountains which run generally from NE to SW.
-
Yuen Long is the driest areas.
(see Agricultural Activities - Farming constraints
in Hong Kong.)
-
Rainfall brought by tropical
cyclones greatly affects the overall rainfall of Hong Kong.
-
A quarter of the mean annual
rainfall in Hong Kong comes from tropical cyclones, especially in late
summer and autumn.
-
However, rainfall associated
with tropical cyclone and their contribution to the annual total vary greatly
from year to year.
-
Rainstorm
Warning Signals
-
A Rainstorm Amber Warning Signals
indicates over 30 mm rainfall has been recorded in one hours.
-
A Rainstorm Red Warning Signal
indicates 50 mm rainfall has been recorded
in one hour.
-
A Rainstorm Black Warning Signals
indicates over 100 mm rainfall has been recorded in two hours.
29
The four seasons
In Hong Kong four well-marked
seasons can be identified, but they are of unequal duration.
-
Spring, from March to April,
is damp and foggy.
-
Summer, from May to September,
is hot and wet.
-
Autumn, from October to November,
is dry and sunny.
-
Winter, from November to February,
is cold and dry.
29-1 Spring
-
Spring is a transitional season.
-
The anticyclone
in central Asia begins to weaken.
-
The cold dry NE offshore monsoon
is gradually replaced by the warm moist SE onshore monsoon.
-
The pressure
gradient is gentle. Winds are light. Air is calm.
-
Temperature begins to rise.
The temperature is mild when compared to winter.
-
Air pressure begins to fall.
-
Relative humidity begins to
rise.
-
Advection
fog is formed.
-
Northerly winds weaken. Warm
moist air moves onshore.
-
The coastal water near Hong
Kong remains relatively cool because the sea is heated up more slowly.
-
The warm moist onshore air passes
over the cooler sea surface and is chilled and condenses into fog.
-
Fog results in low visibility,
disturbs air and water transport, and causes traffic accidents.
-
High relative humidity provides
moisture to crops but causes discomfort to man.
-
Low stratus cloud and drizzle
are formed.
-
Cold front
brings unstable changeable weather. (see 32)
-
With the passage of a cold front,
temperature falls and air pressure rises. Torrential frontal
rain falls.
-
Fog dissipates.
The relative humidity falls.
-
Winds become stronger and change
in direction from southerly to northerly.
-
When the cold front has passed,
the weather becomes fine.
29-2 Summer
-
In northern summer, the sun
is overhead N of equator. The Asian land mass
is intensely heated.
-
The interior of Asia forms an
intense low pressure area.
-
The central part of Australia
forms an intense high pressure area (where it is the southern winter).
-
Wind blows from high pressure
to low pressure.
-
Dry winter SE monsoon winds
blow from the high pressure in the central part of Australia.
-
After crossing the equator,
the SE monsoon winds are deflected to become the SW monsoon winds.
-
They continue to blow into Asian
low pressure as SE monsoon winds.
-
By the Coriolis
effect, the wind blowing into low pressure in the interior of Asia
is anticlockwise.
-
Temperature is high.
-
Air pressure is low.
-
Warm moist onshore SW
monsoon winds bring torrential rain to Hong Kong.
-
Relative humidity is high.
-
Trough
of low pressure (see 33) and tropical
cyclones (see 34) may affect Hong Kong.
29-3 Autumn
-
Autumn is another short transitional
season. It is the most pleasant season of the year.
-
The low pressure system over
the interior of China gradually disappears and is replaced by a high pressure
system.
-
Temperature begins to fall.
-
Air pressure begins to rise.
-
Prevailing winds change to a
easterly direction.
-
Relative humidity begins to
fall.
-
The weather is dry with abundant
sunshine.
-
Rainfall stop suddenly when
the NE monsoon blow at the end of October.
29-4 Winter
-
In northern winter, the sun
is overhead S of equator. The N of Australia is intensely heated.
-
The interior of Asia forms an
intense high pressure area.
-
The N of Australia forms an
intense low pressure area (where it is the southern summer).
-
Wind blows from high pressure
to low pressure.
-
Dry winter NW monsoon winds
blow from N China and Japan, NE monsoon winds from S China and SE Asia.
-
After crossing the equator,
the monsoon winds are deflected to become the NW monsoon winds.
-
Temperature is low.
-
Air pressure is high.
-
Cold dry offshore NE
monsoon winds bring little rain to Hong Kong.
-
Relative humidity is low. The
weather is fine with little cloud and rain.
-
There may be some occasional
showers or drizzles when the cold front is moving S.
-
On exceptional cold night ground
frost may occur.
-
Anticyclone
(see 30) and ridge of
high pressure (see 31) may affect Hong
Kong.
Weather
and Climate 3 - Interpretation of Hong Kong weather
map
30
Anticyclone
-
An anticyclone is presented
on a weather chart by more or less circular isobars, with the highest pressure
at the centre.
-
In winter, anticyclones develop
over W China and is strong enough to influence Hong Kong.
-
The weather is cold, fine and
settled.
-
Rapid night cooling may suddenly
lower the temperature to freezing point on higher ground and frost is formed.
-
Prevailing winds come mainly
from the N or NE.
-
N and NE facing slopes are much
cooler than S-facing slopes.
-
Occasionally, in summer, anticyclones
may form over the Pacific Ocean and extends W to affect Hong Kong.
-
The weather is hot and sunny.
-
This type of weather may last
from a few days to one or two weeks.
-
Figure
21.3 (in the textbook) shows an anticyclone.
-
The centre of the anticyclone
was over E China.
-
The pressure at the centre was
1033 hPa.
-
In E and N China, temperatures
were low.
-
Many stations near the centre
had calm conditions.
-
Winds in S China were northerlies,
since the air was out-blowing from the high pressure centre in a clockwise
direction.
-
At 0200 hours on 25 February
1993 (Figure 21.3), the weather conditions
in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1022 hPa
-
Temperature: 15oC
-
Wind speed: 2.5 m s-1
-
Wind direction: ESE
-
Precipitation: Nil
31
Ridge of High Pressure
-
A ridge of high pressure is
a narrow area of heavy air extending from an anticyclone.
-
The weather in the ridge is
very fine but this lasts only a short time.
-
Figure
21.4 (in the textbook) shows a ridge of high pressure over central
China.
-
Low pressure was found on both
sides of the ridge of high pressure.
-
The weather associated with
the ridge was fine.
-
Winds were light, calm or below
2.5 m s-1.
-
At 0200 hours on 11 February
1993 (Figure 21.4), the general weather conditions
in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1021 hPa
-
Temperature: 16oC
-
Wind speed: 2.5 m s-1
-
Wind direction: SE
-
Precipitation: Nil
32
Temperate Depression and Cold Front
-
The cold
front is the boundary of this cold polar air and warm tropical air.
-
Sometimes it is associated with
temperate depression.
-
The cold heavy air undercuts
the warmer air.
-
The warm air is forced to rise,
forming cloud and rain.
-
Figure
21.11 (in the textbook) show the passage of a cold front from N
to S across Hong Kong.
-
It brings the following weather
changes:
-
drop in temperature,
-
rise in air pressure,
-
change in wind direction,
-
increase in wind speed, and
-
heavy rain and thunderstorm.
-
At 0200 hours on 24 February
1994 (Figure 21.11(a)), the general weather
conditions in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1011 hPa
-
Temperature: 21oC
-
Wind speed: 0 m s-1
-
Wind direction: -
-
Precipitation: Nil
-
At 0200 hours on 25 February
1994 (Figure 21.11(b)), the general weather
conditions in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1019 hPa
-
Temperature: 14oC
-
Wind speed: 2.5 m s-1
-
Wind direction: NE
-
Precipitation: Nil. (The cold
front had passed. Cold air is dry.)
33
Trough of Low Pressure
-
A trough
is an elongated area of low pressure extending from a depression.
-
An axis
along the middle of the trough marks the line of lowest pressure.
-
On weather maps, the axis is
shown by a black line.
-
In summer, a low pressure trough
is formed with its axis extends approximately E-W over Hong Kong.
-
Figure
22.7 (in the textbook) shows a trough of low pressure.
-
Winds blow inwards to the axis
of the trough.
-
There is sudden change in wind
direction.
-
There is bad weather with thunderstorms,
heavy rain and strong winds.
34
Tropical Cyclone
-
Tropical
cyclones or typhoons hit Hong Kong
during summer and autumn.
-
Before
Typhoon Helen Arrives (Figure 21.7 in the
textbook)
-
The air was generally still.
-
The temperature and humidity
were high.
-
High clouds were formed.
-
Air pressure began to drop.
-
At 0200 hours on 10 August 1995
(Figure 21.7), the general weather conditions
in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1010 hPa
-
Temperature: 27oC
-
Wind speed: 0 m s-1
-
Wind direction: -
-
Precipitation: Nil
-
The Standby
Signal No.1 was hoisted at 1600 hours on 9 August 1995.
-
Typhoon
Coming near Hong Kong
-
The front
vortex approached Hong Kong.
-
Pressure dropped steadily.
-
Winds were gusty.
-
Showers occurred more frequently.
-
At 0200 hours on 11 August 1995
(Figure 21.8), the general weather conditions
in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 1008 hPa
-
Temperature: 27oC
-
Wind speed: 2.5 m s-1
-
Wind direction: SE
-
Precipitation: Nil
-
The Strong
Wind Signal No. 3 was hoisted at 0545 hours on 11 August 1995.
-
The North-easterly
Gale or Storm Signal No.8 NE was hoisted
at 2230 hours on 11 August 1995.
-
Pressure dropped steadily.
-
Winds intensified into gales
and turned north-easterly.
-
Dense cumulonimbus brought heavy
downpours.
-
Strong gusts accompanied by
torrential rain can cause severe damage to Hong Kong.
-
The No.
8 NE was replaced by No, 8 NW Gale
or Storm Signal at 0430 hours on 12 August
1995.
-
At 0200 hours on 12 August 1995
(Figure 21.9), the general weather conditions
in Hong Kong were
-
Pressure: 998 hPa
-
Temperature: 25oC
-
Wind speed: 5 m s-1
-
Wind direction: NE
-
Precipitation: Shower
-
Typhoon Centre over Hong Kong
-
Pressure dropped to the lowest,
993 hPa.
-
Wind suddenly reduced to gentle
or moderate breeze.
-
The rain stopped and the sky
became clear. Such a calm period may last for one to a few hours.
-
Typhoon Leaving Hong Kong
-
The rear
vortex brings more violent winds. There are dense clouds and torrential
rain again.
-
Winds direction are opposite
to that brought by the front vortex.
-
Flooding and landslides may
bring more damage.
-
Typhoon Moving away from Hong
Kong
-
The pressure gently rises again.
-
Heavy rainfall may still continue
for several hours.
-
Gusty winds are replaced by
light breezes.
-
There is normal weather soon
after the cyclone has completely passed.
Copyright (C) H L 1998-9.
All Rights Reserved.