Habsburg Rule
By the marriage in 1477 of Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold, to the German prince Maximilian (later Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I), all of the rich Burgundian realm except the duchy itself passed to the control of the Habsburg family. Maximilian's grandson, Charles, inherited the Netherlands (which included present-day Belgium) in 1506. Charles ascended the throne of Spain in 1516 and later became Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In 1549 he decreed that the Netherlands be formally joined to the possessions of Spain.
When Philip II of Spain, Charles's successor, tried to suppress Protestantism and forbade all trade between his subjects and the outside world, he provoked a rebellion in the Netherlands that began in 1566. This upheaval was partly a religious and economic struggle and partly an attempt to preserve local traditions of self-government. Spanish armies were defeated, but the strife between the predominantly Catholic south and the Protestant north continued. In 1581 seven northern provinces (Gelderland, Friesland, Holland, Groningen, Overijssel, Utrecht, and Zeeland) declared their independence as the United Provinces of the Netherlands, while the southern provinces (Belgium) remained loyal to Spain.
Philip II continued to pursue reconquest of the north without success. In 1609, with neither side capable of a decisive victory, Philip III of Spain signed a 12-year truce with the rebels. By the time this accord expired, the Thirty Years War was raging, and the Spanish Netherlands was once again a battleground. In 1635 the Dutch and the French joined forces to divide the Spanish Netherlands, but still could not dislodge the Spaniards. A succession of Franco-Dutch victories finally forced the Spanish king, Philip IV, to accept a separate peace with the Dutch in 1648. The south, present-day Belgium and Luxembourg, remained a Spanish domain. By the Treaty of Münster, the Dutch gained some territory on their southern border, notably Maastricht, and Spain agreed to close off shipping from the Schelde River, which flowed through Dutch territory but which was Antwerp's sole outlet to the sea. The great port city, a center of commerce, thus entered a period of decline.
France, with a growing coalition of European powers, continued the war with Spain. Throughout his long reign the French king, Louis XIV, refused to abandon his quest for the Spanish Netherlands. By the Treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659, France gained several frontier areas, and through subsequent conquests won possession of additional towns. The Spanish Netherlands became an important pawn in the next major European conflict, the War of the Spanish Succession. A settlement concluded at Utrecht in 1713 gave France part of Flanders, including Dunkirk and Lille. The bulk of the territory, however, became the Austrian Netherlands, with a stipulation that its fortresses on the French border be garrisoned by the Dutch.
During the War of the Austrian Succession in 1744, the country was occupied by the French, but it was restored to Austria by the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748. Except for this invasion, Belgium's Austrian era was initially peaceful. This tranquillity was disrupted in 1781 when the Austrian emperor, Joseph II, decided to raze the border fortresses and reopen the Schelde estuary. The Dutch mounted an effective blockade and again closed the river to trade. Then, in 1787, as part of his effort to centralize the administration of the far-flung Habsburg domains, Joseph abolished provincial autonomy in the Austrian Netherlands. The loss of local control led to a general uprising, which coincided with the outbreak of the French Revolution. Most of the Austrian garrisons were forced to capitulate, and on January 11, 1790, a Belgian republic was proclaimed. Quarrels between social and religious factions shook the new state from the outset, and within a year of Joseph's death in 1790, his successor, Leopold II, reestablished control. A conciliatory and enlightened ruler, he revoked his predecessor's decrees, but the new regime won little popular support. After Leopold was succeeded by Francis II in 1792, Austria became embroiled in war with the revolutionary government of France. Belgium was twice occupied by the French army, and the country was formally ceded to France by the Treaty of Campo Formio in 1797.
French and Dutch Rule
The regime installed by the French was generally unpopular, but Belgium profited from French rule. It expanded in area after France conquered the prosperous city of Liège and annexed it to Belgian territory. Economically, after the French opened the Schelde River to shipping, Antwerp's trade revived. New markets were also opened for local industry.
In 1814 the country was occupied by armies of the nations ranged against Napoleon Bonaparte; the next year the Battle of Waterloo, the last great battle of the Napoleonic Wars, was fought on Belgian soil.
The peace settlement adopted at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 again united Belgium and the Netherlands, this time under a Dutch king, William I. Catholic Belgium, however, did not want a Protestant ruler, even though the country prospered under the Dutch. The outbreak of a revolution in France in July 1830 inspired a Belgian uprising in August. Dutch troops were driven from Brussels, and on October 4 a unique coalition of Catholics and Liberals proclaimed Belgian independence. The great powers—Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia—accepted Belgian independence, despite Dutch refusal to acquiesce.
Independence and Neutrality
The Belgians drew up a constitution providing for a bicameral legislature elected by male property owners and a king whose executive acts had to be countersigned by a responsible minister. They chose as their monarch Leopold I of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. He was a model constitutional monarch whose political skills enabled him to wield considerable power at home, and to become an influential figure among Europe's rulers. The Dutch finally agreed to recognize Belgium in 1839 and a peace treaty was signed. In the settlement, half of Luxembourg became a Belgian province, while the Dutch were awarded nominal control of the remainder of the Grand Duchy, as well as Limburg east of the Meuse River. In its most important provision, the European powers confirmed Belgium as an “independent and perpetually neutral state.”
Even after the internal alliance of Catholics and anticlerical Liberals disintegrated, Belgian constitutionalism survived. The economic decline that followed the separation from Dutch markets was halted by Europe's first national program of railway construction, which connected all major Belgian towns by 1840. Belgium had become politically and economically viable by 1865, when Leopold I died and was succeeded by his son.
Under Leopold II, Belgium faced many domestic problems. Liberals and Catholics fought over control of education, finally agreeing to let local governments decide whether or not to subsidize parochial schools. By the 1880s industrialization and population density—the greatest in Europe—had produced appalling living conditions in the cities. As the rural labor force shrank and the number of people engaged in industry tripled, the government enacted legislation to improve housing and working conditions. The workers, who still could not vote, began organizing to obtain political equality. An 1893 general strike forced parliament to institute universal adult male suffrage, modified to give more than one vote to university graduates, men over age 50, and property owners.
Another domestic problem was the lack of a common language. The country's inhabitants were divided between Dutch-speaking Flemings in Antwerp, East and West Flanders, and Limburg, and French-speaking Walloons in the remaining provinces; the province of Brabant, which includes Brussels, contained speakers of both languages. Flemings outnumbered Walloons, but French was the language of the upper classes who controlled much of Belgium's wealth. Thus, Walloon interests were disproportionately represented in the government. The expansion of suffrage began to redress this imbalance, forcing the government to accord equality to both languages when transacting official business.
Early in his reign Leopold II personally financed an expedition up the Congo River and at the Berlin Conference of 1885 he was recognized as sovereign of the Congo Free State. After 1900, however, reports of mistreatment of the native Africans outraged Belgian public opinion and led to legislation in 1908 transferring control of this royal enterprise to the state.
As the outbreak of war seemed imminent in Europe, Belgium's neutral status caused a domestic controversy over the military budget. Advocates of preparedness opposed those who believed that the nation's neutrality rendered most armaments unnecessary. In 1909, when Albert ascended the throne, he warned that the army was not strong enough to defend the country. The Catholic-led government used an electoral victory in 1912 to increase draft quotas, over the opposition of Liberals and Socialists.
World War I
On August 4, 1914, one week after the war began, German troops crossed the frontier into Belgium, ignoring its neutral status. The government resisted invasion and appealed to France, Britain, and Russia for aid. The Belgian army put up a heroic defense against overpowering forces; for four years its troops held on to a sliver of Belgian territory between the Yser River and the French border. The Germans, meanwhile, carried on a ruthless occupation of Belgium, confiscating property and deporting civilians. Although they attempted to capitalize on language divisions by establishing separate Flemish and Walloon administrations, only a small minority of Flemings collaborated with the invaders. A million Belgians fled the country. As the war dragged on, more than 80,000 soldiers and civilians died.
The major Allied offensive that began on September 28, 1918, liberated the entire Belgian coast and led the Germans to agree to an armistice and to withdrawal on the Allies' terms. The shooting war was finally over. Under the Treaty of Versailles, Germany ceded Eupen, Malmédy, and Moresnet to Belgium, adding 989.3 sq km (382 sq mi) and some 64,500 inhabitants to the kingdom.
Belgium was faced with the task of rebuilding the devastated areas. Although the damage was enormous, the country made a remarkable recovery. The introduction of unqualified adult male suffrage after the war increased the following of the Socialists, who now supplanted the Liberals as the major political rival of the Catholics. Meanwhile, Belgium abandoned neutrality and in 1920 signed a military alliance with France. In 1925 it became a party to the Locarno treaties, in which Britain, France, Germany, and Italy affirmed Belgium's territorial inviolability.
World War II
In 1936, after France failed to oppose German remilitarization of the Rhineland, Belgium again returned to neutrality with the understanding that Britain and France would assist in its defense against foreign aggression. Nevertheless, Belgium was attacked for a second time by Germany on May 10, 1940. Without warning or ultimatum, Belgian airfields, railroad stations, and communications centers were bombed by German planes, and German armored units rolled across the border. The army and the French and British troops that came to Belgium's aid were overwhelmed by the superior might of the invading forces. By May 26 the Allies were pushed into a narrow beachhead around Dunkirk, France, near the Belgian border. King Leopold III surrendered his remaining forces unconditionally on May 28 and was taken prisoner. The Belgian cabinet, which had fled to Paris, refused to acknowledge defeat, declaring the king's surrender “illegal and unconstitutional.” On May 30 the ministers voted to divest the king of all powers and of the right to rule, a decision supported by the Belgian parliament. After the fall of France, the Belgian government moved to London; it returned to Brussels on September 8, 1944. Later that month parliament elected Leopold's brother, Prince Charles, as regent.
Postwar Belgium
Although Belgium was in better economic condition after World War II than after World War I, it was politically disorganized because of a conflict between the Christian Social (Catholic) party and the coalition of Liberals, Socialists, and Communists. Intensifying the political struggle was the question concerning King Leopold, who had remained in Austria awaiting determination of his future. Despite pressure from the Catholic party (now strengthened by the enfranchisement of women), which favored the return of the king, the Belgian parliament in the summer of 1945 extended indefinitely the regency of Prince Charles, virtually exiling the king because of his alleged defeatism in 1940. While the struggle for political control continued, Belgium regained much of its former position as one of the world's great trading nations.
Belgium joined the United Nations (UN) as a charter member on June 26, 1945, and gave consistent support to the other Western member nations during the so-called Cold War with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) and the states within the Soviet sphere of influence. Belgium was similarly cooperative toward the efforts of the democratic countries to accomplish economic recovery and to erect safeguards against Communist aggression. In April 1949 Belgium joined the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Royal Controversy
On March 12, 1950, after more than a year of successive governmental crises brought on by the controversy over the king, the Belgian electorate went to the polls in an advisory plebiscite on the question of Leopold's return. The return of the king from exile was favored by 57.6 percent of the voters. On July 20 the Belgian parliament ratified popular sentiment. During the following week strikes, demonstrations, and riots occurred in many urban areas of the country, creating grave possibilities of a civil war. On August 1, after consultations with government and political leaders, Leopold agreed to assign his royal prerogatives to his son, Crown Prince Baudouin, and to abdicate the following year, when his son attained his majority. Leopold abdicated on July 16, 1951, and Baudouin was proclaimed king the next day.
European Cooperation
The 1950s were marked by the concentrated effort of European leaders to effect a politico-economic union of the Western European nations. Taking an active role in this movement, Belgium, along with France, West Germany (now part of the United Federal Republic of Germany), Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands, became a charter member of the European Coal and Steel Community in 1952. When France refused to ratify the treaty establishing the European Defense Community in 1954, Foreign Minister Paul Henri Spaak initiated the second “launching of Europe.” His efforts were instrumental in the founding in 1957 of the European Economic Community (see EUROPEAN COMMUNITY). Brussels became the seat of its governing commission and much of its bureaucracy, reflecting the key role that Spaak played in shaping the new European order. That same year the nation became a member of the European Atomic Energy Community. In the long run, Belgium greatly benefited from its membership and key role in these supranational organizations.
Crises of Empire and Nation
In 1960 uprisings in the Belgian Congo forced Belgium to withdraw from its African empire. On June 30, 1960, King Baudouin proclaimed the independence of the colony (now Zaire). In 1962 the Belgian-administered UN trust territory of Ruanda-Urundi achieved independence as two states, Rwanda and Burundi.
Within Belgium, the long-standing rivalry between Flemings and Walloons frequently erupted into riots during the 1960s. A government settlement effected in September 1963 changed the official language boundaries, but the problem was not that easily solved. In January 1968 clashes between Walloons and Flemings led to the collapse of the government. The Christian Social leader Gaston Eyskens formed a coalition with the Socialists in June. The coalition retained its majority in 1971, but the cabinet resigned in November 1972. A three-party coalition under Socialist leadership followed, but, weakened by linguistic and cultural tensions, it fell in January 1974. After elections in March, the Christian Social leader, Léo Tindemans, formed a coalition with the Liberals and the Rassemblement Wallon. He held office until February 1977 despite an economic recession. Elections followed in April, but the results made formation of a new government impossible until an agreement was reached providing for greater regional autonomy. That agreement was rejected by parliament, and new elections in December 1978 proved inconclusive.
In the 1980s the Christian Social parties formed the cabinets, usually under the leadership of Wilfried Martens. He formed his eighth government in 1988, and in January 1989 parliament passed a devolution bill designed to transfer power from the central government to the three ethnolinguistic regions (see “Language,” above). Implementation of this law moved slowly, and the November 1991 elections resulted in a reduced plurality for the Christian Socialists. Martens resigned as party leader, and his successor, Jean-Luc Dehaene, formed a new center-left government in March 1992. Belgium moved to support increased economic and political cooperation in Europe by ratifying the Maastricht Treaty on European union in the fall of 1992. In May 1993, Belgium completed the devolution process, officially becoming a federal country with three regions, or states. King Baudouin died on July 31, 1993, and was succeeded by his brother Albert.
"Belgium," Microsoft (R) Encarta. Copyright (c) 1994 Microsoft Corporation. Copyright (c) 1994 Funk & Wagnall's Corporation.
