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| The Olympic Festival in Antiquity "There are enough irksome and troublesome things in life; aren't things just as bad at the Olympic festival? Aren't you scorched there by the fierce heat? Aren't you crushed in the crowd? Isn't it difficult to freshen yourself up? Doesn't the rain soak you to the skin? Aren't you bothered by the noise, the din and other nuisances? But it seems to me that you are well able to bear and indeed gladly endure all these, when you think of the gripping spectacles that you will see." Epictetus, AD 1st The Olympic festival was the most important and ancient of all other Greek festivals. It was the greater religious festival among others, dedicated to Zeus, the supreme of all gods. The sanctuary of Olympia imposed its authority throughout the Greek world, whereas soon the Olympic games became the symbol of Panhellenic unity. The site and the sanctuary of Olympia gradually developed through time. From a simple cult place, it evolved to an elaborated sanctuary adorned with temples, the greatest among them being the Temple of Zeus, secular buildings and statues. New games were added in the festival and new athletic facilities were built in order to facilitate the athletes who participated in the games. The Olympic festival was held once every four years in the most hot days of the summer. During the five days of the festivals, a number of sacrifices were dedicated to the altars of the gods of Olympia, the most magnificent of all being the sacrifice of one hundred cattle in front of Zeus' altar. A series of athletic contests were held in the stadium, the hippodrome and other areas of the site in front of thousands of spectators from all cities of the known-Greek world. The victors were crowned with a wreath of wild olive and enjoyed special honors from their hometown. IMPORTANCE OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES "And we compel men to exercise their bodies not only for the games, so that they can win the prizes-for very few of them go to them-but to gain a greater good from it for the whole city, and for the men themselves" Lucian, Anacharsis, ca. AD 170 The emergence of city-states in the Greek world was paralleled by an expansion of organized athletic activities. Greeks organized special festivals in order to hold athletic events: these ranged from small-scale contests to national-wide games. Among the latter, Olympic and Pythian festivals were in the top rank, attracting people from almost all Greek cities. Hostilities were suspended during the Olympic festival which added glory to the games and ensured its fame throughout the Greek world. Every city-state was ambitious to claim as many Olympic victors as it could and this resulted in issuing several laws to encourage athletism. Above all, the Olympiad was a sacred festival, and not simply a series of athletic performances, as it is today. Why did the Olympic festival and being victorious in the games become the symbol of spirit and unity in Antiquity? Firstly, to gain victory became a major achievement that gave credits not only to the athlete but to his city as well. Not long after Homer's times, personal achievement could not be envisaged without the contribution and acknowledgment of the athlete's city. Athletic victory became inextricably linked to the victory of his city and the city became the only collective body with rights to assign glory and awards. Secondly, it was the credit to the personal achievement and the wide recognition of the athlete's physical and moral virtues. "Kartereia", or the degree of endurance an athlete demonstrated during the long training period and performance became a major virtue. The athlete's ability to suffer in silence and exhibit patience in training and practicing was one of the most important virtues that an athlete could gain and develop in his athletic years of life. "I won at boxing thrice by my skill and the endurance of my hands" says an ancient boxer in his inscription, being excessively proud of his accomplishment. Cicero notes that often eager but not well-trained boxers could bear the blows more than the heat at Olympia! The main concern of those competing, however, was not to develop one specific physical ability at the expense of others, but to succeed a balanced development of all physical and moral values. Then, it was the moral reward that made the victory worthy of all efforts and physical pain. The Olympic victors shared in the divine splendor and imperishable fame of the first mythical heroes. Victory was the highest honor for a mortal to attain, for his fame became immortal thanks to the gods who preferred him and helped him to win. The favor of the gods and the wide recognition the victor gained by his city was the highest prize that made the obsessive passion of Greeks for contest ("agon") worthy of all efforts. Lastly, it was the challenge for the Greek world to promote cooperation and exhibit political unity. Thanks to the truce, all Greek cities could send their official missions ("the theoriai") to attend the games. All cities attached great importance to the sanctuary as shown in the missions they sent and the treasuries they erected at the site. It is here that the famous Greek philosophers, poets and historians read their works in front of the public. These national gatherings became famous Panhellenic festivals, that promoted cultural consciousness and strengthened Greek identity. Changes in the Athletic Spirit The spread of the Hellenistic culture and the new economic, political, and social conditions following the campaign of Alexander the Great, led to important changes of the athletic spirit and the ideological content of the games. The number of athletic festivals and institutions increased at the new Greek centers. New games were established in different city-states of the Hellenistic world: the Ptolemaea at Alexandria, the Nicephoria at Pergamum, the Heracleia at Chalkis. The number of professional athletes coming from Alexandria and the east increased and monetary prizes became a common rule. Athletism became an important component in social life and education. The Greeks who lived in Asia and Egypt, in an effort to hold on to their culture, built athletic facilities and continued their athletic traditions. The gymnasium was not only the physical place for training, but a place where Greeks could meet, thus preserving their language and customs throughout Asia. The bond between religion and the athletic ideal ceased to exist and the games now turned into secular events. Victory was more linked to the athlete's personal effort and less to the assistance of gods. In the Roman period, the athletic ideal changed once more. For the Romans, the contests were spectacles, performances (ludi) and not competitions among all citizens. Usually the athletes were slaves or gladiators. The higher class Romans were unwilling to display themselves publicly which displayed a negative attitude towards athletism. Olympia ceased to be the center of the ancient world and the games were now instituted in honor of the Roman emperor. |
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| SITE IN TIME Olympia is located 10km inland in the territory of Elis in the northwestern Peloponnese, just near the confluence of Alpheios with the river Kladeos. Peloponnese, where Olympia lies, was considered to be the island of Pelops, the mythical figure whose life was traditionally linked to the site of Olympia. Near the point where the two rivers meet, there rises a low hill covered with pines. This bears the name of Kronos, the father of Zeus, and surrounds the flat area of the shrine, the name of which was "Altis", meaning grove (alsos) in the Elian dialect. The ancient writers tell us that Altis used to be shaded with olive-trees. Greeks honored Zeus and other deities at altars located in the Altis. The cults of Kronos, Rhea, Gaia, Eileithyia, Themis and Idaian Herakles were also worshiped at Olympia since the earlier times. From the sixth century and on, the Altis was adorned with temples, elaborate shrines, and statues. The Altis was the center of all religious activities during the Olympic festival. |
| The site of Olympia developed from a local cult center to a Panhellenic sanctuary throughout the course of the centuries. · In the Geometric and Archaic periods (10th-6th centuries BC), the site was reorganized to meet the increasing needs created by the visitors of the site. In the early 6th century BC, the first temple, dedicated to Hera, was erected. A series of structures with votive offerings were dedicated to the sanctuary by various Greek cities, in of which many were wealthy Greek colonies. · In the Classical era (5th and 4th centuries BC), the sanctuary complex was reorganized to accommodate the most magnificent temple of the site: the temple of Zeus, containing the most famous cult statue of Zeus, made by the famous sculptor Pheidias. The site was supplied with a number of new secular buildings and athletic facilities. · In the late Classical (4th century BC) and Hellenistic periods the site was decorated with buildings dedicated by Philip II of Macedonia, father of Alexander the Great, and other wealthy donors. New elaborated practice areas, such as the Gymnasium and the Palaistra, were erected. · In the Roman period the sanctuary acquired an international fame and enjoyed imperial benefits. Following the political crisis in the late Roman period, the decline of Olympia was accelerated. In AD 393, Theodosios I, the emperor of east Roman empire, put an end to the Olympic games. |
| THE OLYMPIAD After the 5th century BC the games, which were held every four years, lasted five days. They were scheduled during the hottest months of the year. Throughout the centuries the games evolved, the number of athletic contests from the first to the last Olympiad increased and new contests were introduced. During the 5 days of the Olympic festival, the Greeks sacrificed to Zeus and other deities of the sanctuary. A number of athletic games took place. The festival ended with great religious and festive ceremonies. Date and duration of the Olympiads The Olympic festival, like the other Panhellenic festivals, was held once every four years in accordance to the Greek eight-year calendar. The exact dates of the festival were calculated on the basis of the lunar 28-day month. The games were held at the first full moon after the summer solstice, coinciding with today's mid-July, approximately between the 11th-16th of the month. This was the hottest period of the year, and many athletes found the heat uncomfortable. The time spanning between two Olympic festivals was called an Olympiad. The term was also used to denote the days of the festival itself. During the time interval between two Olympic festivals, Greeks gathered in other Panhellenic festivals held in other sanctuaries. The order of the festivals was the following: Date Time of year Event 540 BC late summer 55th Olympiad 539 BC summer Nemean Games 538 BC spring Isthmian Games 537 BC summer Nemean Games 536 BC spring Isthmian Games 536 BC late summer 56th Olympiad The Olympiads formed the basis of a nation-wide dating system. Each Olympiad was named after the athlete who had won in that year's stadion race. Later, in the early 4th century BC, the sophist Hippias of Elis numbered all Olympiads in relation to the first Olympiad, held in 776 BC. The list of Olympiads was later completed by Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Phlegon of Tralleis and Julius Africanus Introduction of Games Olympiad Date Game 1st 776 BC Stadion (single-course race, 200 m) 14th 724 BC Diaulos (double-course race, 400 m) 15th 720 BC Dolichos (long-course race, 2000 m) 18th 708 BC Pentathlon and Wrestling 23rd 688 BC Boxing 25th 680 BC Tethrippon (four-horse chariot race) 33rd 648 BC Horse race and Pankration (all-in wrestling) 37th 632 BC Boys' foot race and Wrestling 38th 628 BC Boys' Pentathlon (held once only) 41st 616 BC Boys Boxing 65th 520 BC Race in armor 70th 500 BC Apene (mule-cart race) 93rd 408 BC Two-horse chariot race 96th 396 BC Competitions for heralds and trumpeters 99th 384 BC Four-horse chariot race for yearlings 128th 268 BC Two-horse chariot for yearlings 131st 256 BC Horse race for yearlings 145th 200 BC Pankration for boys Events of an Olympiad "You come to the Olympic festival itself and to the finest event in Olympia, for right here is the men's pankration. Arrichion, who has died seeking victory, is taking the crown for it, and this Olympic judge is crowning him...They shout and jump out of their seats and wave their hands and garments. Some spring into the air, others in ecstasy wrestle the man nearby..." Lucian, Anacharsis, ca. AD 170 From the fifth century and on, the Olympic festival lasted five days, although fluctuations might have occurred. Before that time, the duration of an Olympiad varied from one day (held until the 24th Olympiad, 684 BC) to three days (added in the 37th Olympiad, 632 BC). Customarily, those who wished to participate officially in the Games had to be trained in their hometown at least for ten months prior to the games. According to the regulations of the Games, the athletes had to arrive at Elis at least one month before the festival took place in order to continue training and to fulfil some formalities. Before the day of the Games, the spondophoroi, citizens of Elis wearing crowns of olive branches and holding the herald's wand in their hands, travelled to all Greek cities in order to claim the truce (ekecheiria) and the suspension of all hostilities for 3 months. The following is a description of a typical Olympiad of the 4th century BC: A day before the games Two days prior to the official opening of the games, a procession of athletes and umpires set out from Elis. Following the Sacred Way which led to Olympia, they would stop at the spring Piera for a ceremonial sacrifice and spend the night at Letrinoi. The following morning the procession was welcomed by the noisy and enthusiastic crowd which had gathered at the sanctuary of Olympia. Day One This is the day of the official opening of the festival. The ceremony started with the athlete's registration and the official oath of the competitors and judges in the Bouleuterion (Council-house). In front of the statue of ZeusHorkios (Zeus of the Oaths), the athletes had to swear that they had been trained for the last ten months and would obey the rules during the Games. The judges then had to swear to judge fair. Next, the registration of equestrian pairs took place. A white board, containing the names of the competitors, was hung outside the Bouleuterion to inform the visitors about the schedule of the games. The first competition was between the trumpeters and the heralds. The winners had the honour to announce the names of the victors and sound the trumpet for all events at Olympia. Then the public and private sacrifices to their patron gods were held by the missions of the various cities. Sacrifices took place in front of all altars: Poseidon Hippios', Hera Hippia's, Ares Hippios', Athena Hippia's, the Diouskouroi's, Tyche's, Taraxippos' and others. In the afternoon, the noisy crowd scattered around the site, visiting all temples and altars, discussing, meeting old friends, telling stories about past victors of the Games, or hearing authors and poets reciting their works. It was a time filled with joy and pleasure. Day Two This was the day of the first competition. First was the stadion race. The herald called the participating boys, and the judges took their position. The judge handed out the urn and the runners chose their order by picking lots with letters on them showing their order. The name of the victor winning at the end was announced by the herald and the victor was awarded with the palm branch. Next, the boys wrestling game started. The wrestlers fought in pairs, and the winners of the matches competed for the final. Then followed the boxing and the pankration matches. The games lasted until the late afternoon. Then, celebrations of the victors lasted until late in the night. Day Three This is the day of the equestrian events and the pentathlon games. The equestrian events were among the most popular games of the Olympic festival and they were scheduled according to the following order: · Four-horse chariot race · Race for fully grown horses · Race of chariots drawn by mules · Races for mares · Two-horse chariot race · Four-horse chariot race for foals · Two horse chariot race for foals · Foals' races In the early afternoon, the pentathlon game, a combination of five different events, jumping, running, javelin (the light events),discus and wrestling (the heavy events), was held at the stadium. Athletes competed in the five games, and the two last victors competed in wrestling. It is not clear who was declared the winner. It has been argued by researchers that the athletes competed in all five events and the last two winners confronted each other in wrestling. The final winner of the pentathlon was declared victor. The day closed with ceremonies held in honour of Pelops, the mythical founder of the Games, in front of the Pelopion. Day Four The day started with the big ceremony, the hecatombe, in honour of Zeus: 100 oxen, offered by the Eleans, were sacrificed in front of Zeus' altar. The procession, set out from the Prytaneion, consisted of city representatives, priests, athletes and all other groups. Then, the games followed: · the stadion race: the stadion (single-course race), the diaulos (double-course race) and the dolichos (long-course race) · wrestling · boxing · pankration · armed race Day Five This is the day of the official closing of the Olympic festival. A number of sacrifices to the deities of Olympia took place in front of its various altars. All winners were gathered at the temple of Zeus to be awarded by the oldest of the Hellanodikai (the judges). Their names and their city of origin were announced by the herald in front of all people. At the Prytaneion [the headquarters of the officials of the sanctuary] great feasts were given by the Eleans in honour of the athletes. Following the feasts, the victors would return to their homeland to receive special honors. Awards Ceremony "As when a man takes up in his wealthy hand a drinking cup brimming with the dew of the vine and gives it to his new son-in-law toasting his move from one home to another to the joy of his drinking companions... just so do I send my liquid nectar, gift of the Muses, sweet fruit of my talent, to the prize winners, and please the winners at Olympia and Pytho." Pindar, Olympian Ode 7.1-16, 80-93. 464 BC As they entered the temple, the victors wore a red woolen band around the head and held a palm-branch in their right hand. The wool band was usually used to adorn sacred objects, and the palm-branch was reminiscent of Theseus, who issued the games in Delos. The victors of these games were crowned also with a palm-branch. Within the temple, there were crowns of wild olive leaves (kotinos), placed on a gold and ivory table. The bronze tripod on which the crowns had been in earlier times, was now kept in the temple. The victors were crowned with the precious prize. It was believed that the crown transferred powers to the athlete. The victor became the favorite of the gods, because he has won with the gods' help. This rite symbolized the mystic communion between the deity and the man. According to the tradition, it was Iphitos who first established the crown of wild olive as the prize, thus, obeying to an oracle from Delphi. The olive branch was always cut from the same ancient wild olive tree, the Kallistephanos , grown near the temple of Zeus. Victors in other games were praised in a similar way: a wreath of laurel for the victors of the Pythian Games at Delphi, a wreath of pine for the victors of the Isthmian Games, and a wreath of celery for the victors of the Nemean Games. Special Honours "Truly blessed is he who is surrounded by constant good repute...." Pindar, Olympic Ode, ca. 464 BC Upon their return to their homeland, the victors of the games received monetary awards and honorary titles. Monetary awards ranged from low to high prizes. It is said that some cities gave victors prizes of five talents. Those who had won were comparable to heroes and deities, thus, they deserved excessive honours. Honorary distinctions and privileges varied from city to city. Usually the entry to the city was festive and glorious, with the assembled crowd throwing flowers and leaves. The victor entered the city on a tethrippon and, in some cases, part of the walls was demolished to show that walls were no longer necessary for the city's defence. The reception of the winners of the games was on the same level with that reserved for generals returning victorious from expeditions. The victor visited the temple of the patron deity of the city, sacrificing and offering his crown. A feast followed the rituals. The victors had the right to dine free for the rest of their life at the Prytaneion. They earned a seat of honour at the public games and, after the mid 5th century BC, they were excluded from taxation. Their names were inscribed on stelae [stone slabs] in public spaces. In Sparta the victors were entitled to fight along with the kings at war, a honorary distinction. In the Hellenistic and Roman periods, privileges increased and the Roman boys who had won at the Olympic Games could become members of the council. The victor of the Olympic games remained famous forever. In the sacred place of Olympia, the victors erected their statues bearing their names, family names and their cities. The victory ode ("epinician"), written by famous poets on the victor's commission, ensured the immortal fame of the victor. Finally, these athletes who had accomplished other achievements for themselves and their cities were recognised as heroes. For more information for the Olympics and details on the games see : http://pegasos.fhw.gr/projects/olympics/classical/ |
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