Pulses

 

v    Introduction of pulses

Ø      Introduction

Ø      Origins

Ø      Nutrition

Ø      Storage & cooking

Ø      Toxins of pulses

Ø      Sprouting

v    Pulse crops

v    Major pulse crops in India

v    Milling of pulses

v    Compositions of pulses

v    Processing of pulses

v    Utilization of pulses

v    Toxic constituents of pulses

v    Pulses of human nutrition

v    Some important pulses

v    Introduction of soybean

Ø      Processing of soybean

Ø      Overview of soybean

Ø      Soybean production

Ø      Major problems of soybean production

Ø      Best Agronomic Practices for IP Soybean Production

Ø      Weed Control for IP Soybeans

Ø      Key Weeds to Control

Ø      Acceptable Level of Infestation

Ø      Potential for Contamination

Ø      Contaminated Equipment

Ø      Maintaining Quality

Ø      Storage & Small-scale technology

Ø      Fortification of staple foods with soybeans

Ø      Modifications to soybean cultivars

Ø      Growing Organic Soybeans on CRP Land

Ø      Processed soybean Products

Ø      Fermented Products of soybean

v    Conclusion

v    References

 

 

v  Introduction of Pulses

 

Pulses are the edible fruits or seeds of pod-bearing belonging to the family of Leguminosae and are widely grown throughout the world. They have a high protein content ranging from 20-40 per cent and this makes them important in human food from the point of view of nutrition. There is widespread protein-calorie malnutrition in developing the protein gap. India depends greatly on pulses to meet its demand for proteins. Because of religious sentiments, meat is not used by a good section of the people and also there is not enough meat even for those who use it. Pulses are the “poor man’s meat”. The per capita consumption of pulses in India was the highest in the world (71 g per day) in 1959/60, but it came down due to low production.

 

An alternate name for pulses is “legumes”, which is common in many parts of the world. In India, the term gram is commonly used for dry legume seeds with husk, while split decorticated grains are called ‘dhal’.

 

 

v  Origins of Pulses

 

Pulses have been used as food for thousands of years. The lentil was probably one of the first plants ever to be domesticated by humans. Most pulses prefer warm climates but there are some varieties, which can grow in temperate regions. They can be eaten fresh or dried. In spite of its common name, the peanut or groundnut is also a legume rather than a nut.

 

vNutrition of Pulses

 

All pulses, except for soy beans, are very similar in nutritional content. They are rich in protein, carbohydrate and fiber, and low in fat, which is mostly of the unsaturated kind. They are also important sources of some B vitamins. Fresh pulses contain vitamin C, but this declines after harvesting and virtually all is lost from dried pulses. Canned pulses however, retain about half their vitamin C except for canned, processed peas, which have been dried before canning. Canning doesn't affect the protein content, eliminates the need for soaking and considerably reduces the cooking time compared with dried pulses. Frozen peas also lose about a quarter of their vitamin C content.

Pulses are usually eaten for their high protein content. A typical nutritional breakdown is that for haricot beans which are used to make baked beans, contain, per 100g dried beans: 21.4g protein, 1.6g fat, 45.5g carbohydrate, 25.4g fiber, 6.7mg iron and 180mg calcium.

The nutritional quality of the soybean is superior to that of other pulses. It contains more protein and is also a good source of iron and calcium. The nutritional breakdown of soy is per 100g of dried beans: 34.1g protein, 17.7g fat, 28.6g carbohydrate, 8.4mg iron and 226mg calcium. Dried soy beans are lengthy to prepare because they need at least 12 hours soaking and 4 hours cooking time, boiling for the first hour, but nowadays a large number of soy based foods including tofu, tempeh and textured vegetable protein (soy mince or chunks) are available.

v  Storage & Cooking of Pulses

Food grains in the hot and humid countries of Asia suffer qualitative and quantitative losses from insects, micro-organisms and rodents during post-harvest handling and storage. Impairment of organoleptic and nutritional qualities and health hazards arising from insect and fungal metabolizes, are well-known effects of inadequate grain protection measures and undesirable storage conditions.

To eliminate or minimize such losses, pesticides and their formulations are used widely for prophylaxis or destruction of insect pests both pre- and post-harvest. Pesticide residues are monitored and regulated under Indian food laws to ensure safety to consumers. Increasing hazards from the pesticide residues on food grains accumulating in the human system either by direct consumption or through animal-based foods, have led to an intensification of research on non-toxic insecticides, biological methods of control, and breeding of varieties resistant to pre-harvest infestation.

A mass of experimental data on the varietal resistance of different food grains to storage pests has been put out from various parts of the world. More often than not, the susceptibility or resistance of high-yielding varieties to storage pests is tested just before release for commercial cultivation. Attention to pest resistance is important at all stages of the breeding programme. Maintaining desirable genetic characteristics on a national scale of cultivation is difficult and expensive.

Sixty-seven varieties of rice have been tested for field infestation by Angoumois paddy moth (Sitotroga cerealella) and graded for susceptibility (Kittur and Patel 1972).Genetic resistance of certain rice varieties to this storage pest has also been reported from the United States (Cogburn 1977). Information on susceptibility or resistance of wheats grown in India to storage pests such as the rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae), or khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium), Rhizopertha dominica, and Tribolium castaneum have also been generated to help in breeding and cultivation (Bhatia and Gupta 1969; Gupta and Kalyan 1971; Chakrabarty and Mathew 1972; and Singh and Mathew 1973).

In maize, Angoumois paddy moth is found to damage varieties with a high amylose content (Fergason et al. 1970). Reports from Africa indicate that local varieties are more resistant to insect infestation than improved varieties and hybrids, because of hard kernels and complete coverage of cobs by sheaths (Adams 1977; Dobie 1977). Resistance and susceptibility of India maize varieties to Trogoderma granarium and Rhizopertha dominica have also been tested. Six genotypes (M-25-1, CSH-1, CSH-2, CSH3, CSH-4, and CSH-5) of Indian jowar have also been tested and the degrees of resistance to storage pests ascertained (Krishnamurthy et al. 1976).

Varietal resistance of pulses to storage pests has also been indicated in India. Trials on chick-pea have shown that grains of indigenous varieties G-24 and G-30 are more tolerant than new varieties to the pulse beetle (Callosobruchus chinensis) because of a wrinkled surface and tough coat (Gupta and Mishra 1970).

Continuous efforts are necessary to develop and maintain pest-resistant germplasm of different food grains so as to economize on the costs of storage and infestation control.

One advantage of dried pulses is that they will store very well for long periods if kept in a dry, airtight container away from the light. However it is best to eat them as fresh as possible. Pulses toughen on storage and older ones will take longer to cook. Allow about 55g dried weight per person, once soaked and cooked they will at least double in weight. Most dried pulses need soaking for several hours before they can be cooked, exceptions are all lentils, green and yellow split peas, blackeye and mung beans. Soaking times vary from 4-12 hours, it is usually most convenient to soak pulses overnight. Always discard the soaking water, rinse and cook in fresh water without any salt, which toughens the skins and makes for longer cooking. Changing the water will help to reduce the flatulence some people suffer when eating pulses, also reputed to help is the addition of a pinch of aniseeds, caraway, dill or fennel seeds.

 

 

Toxins in Pulses

 

Consumers should be aware that it is not safe to eat raw or undercooked kidney and soya beans. There is no need to avoid them as long as they are thoroughly cooked.

v   Red kidney beans:

 Incidents of food poisoning have been reported associated with the consumption of raw or undercooked red kidney beans. Symptoms may develop after eating only four raw beans and include nausea, vomiting and abdominal pain followed by diarrhoea. A naturally occurring haemaglutin is responsible for the illness, but can be destroyed by high temperature cooking, making the beans completely safe to eat. For this reason, kidney beans must not be sprouted. Kidney beans should be soaked for at least 8 hours in enough cold water to keep them covered. After soaking, drain and rinse the beans, discarding the soaking water. Put them into a pan with cold water to cover and bring to the boil. The beans must now boil for 10 minutes to destroy the toxin. After this the beans should be simmered until cooked (approximately 45-60 minutes) and they should have an even creamy texture throughout - if the centre is still hard and white, they require longer cooking.

v   Soy beans:

Contain an anti-trypsin factor (or trypsin inhibitor), which prevents the assimilation of the amino acid methionine. Soya beans also require careful cooking to ensure destruction of this factor. They should be soaked for at least 12 hours, drained and rinsed then covered with fresh water and brought to the boil. Soy beans should be boiled for the first hour of cooking. They can then be simmered for the remaining 2-3 hours that it takes to cook them.

Soy flour should state heat treated on its packaging. Other soy products (e.g. tofu, tempeh, soya milk, soya sauces and miso) are quite safe to use. Soya beans can be sprouted, but the sprouts should be quickly blanched in boiling water to inactivate the trypsin inhibitor.

v   Pressure cooking:

The temperatures achieved in pressure cooking are adequate to destroy both haemaglutins and the trypsin inhibitor. Pressure-cooking also considerably reduces cooking times - kidney beans 10-20 minutes, soy beans 1 hour.

v   Canning:

 The temperature achieved in the canning process also renders pulses quite safe.

v   Slow cookers:

Pulses must be soaked and boiled for 10 minutes before being added to a slow cooker, as they do not reach sufficiently high temperatures to destroy the toxins.

As beans and peas are all very similar nutritionally, with the exception of soy, they can be interchanged in most recipes if you want to experiment or have run out of one kind, as long as you take into account the different cooking times. If the beans are likely to need a lot longer to cook than the other ingredients, try pre-cooking them in a separate pan before adding to the other ingredients or using canned beans.

Sprouting

 

Many whole pulses (e.g. aduki, chickpeas, whole lentils, marrowfat peas, mung and soya beans) can be sprouted which increases their nutritional value.

 

 

Pulse Crops

 

There are over 13,000 species of belonging to the family of Leguminosae and some are cultivated as crop plants whose seeds are edible. Over the years, wild varieties of legumes have been domesticated. In this process, ancient Indian and Chinese civilizations seem to have played an important part in the domestication of Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum) and soybean (Glycine max) respectively. Some pulses are also used as cattle feed and as green manure.

The world production of pulses in 1979-80 was 48.0 million tonnes. China is the world’s largest producer of pulses with 14 million tonnes in an area of 14.0 million hectares. India comes next with a production of 12 million tonnes, cultivated in an area of about 23.5 million hectares. However, the aggregate output has shown a declining trend over the years from the peak production of 13.1 million tonnes in 1959-60. We require a production of 15.5 million tonnes to meet our dietary needs. T

Though, with the success of the green revolution there has been an increase in total food production, the production of pulses has been relatively stagnant in India. It is to be hoped that with some technological breakthrough in the production of pulses and increased area of cultibation, the Indian pulse production will increase to meet the demand.

 

The most important pulse crop in India is groundnut or peanut (Arachis hypogaea) which can be put to a wide range of uses. With its high oil content, groundnut goes to a great part into oil production. Leaving aside groundnut, of the legumes which are used just as pulse, the most important pulse crop in India is Bengal gram or Chana, which is grown in an area of nearly two-fifth of that under pulse cultivation and accounts for about 50 per cent of the total production of pulses. Next in importance is red gram (cajanus cajan) accounting for about 11 per cent of the pulses.

 

 

Major puls crops of India

 

 

Common name	Botanical name	Percentage of total production
1 Bengal gram or chick-per (chana)	Cicer arietinum	51
2 Red gram or tur (arhar or pigeon pea)	Cajanus cajan	11.2
3 Black gram or urad	Phaseolus mungo	3.9
4 Greengram or mung	Phaseolus aureus	2.5
5 Moth or tepary bean	Phaseolus aconitifolius	2.6
6 Lentil or masur	Lens culinaris	2.9
7 Hosegram or kulthi	Dolichos biflorus	3.0
8 Peas	Pisum sativum	9.8
9 Khesari dhal	Lathyrus sativus	7.6
10 Others	-	5.5

 

 

 

 

Source: Kachroo, P., Pulse Crops of India, India Council of Agriculture Research, New Delhi 1970

Among the others in the table, important ones are: cow pea (Vigna unguiculata), cluster bean or guar (Cyarnopis tetragonolaba), Indian bean or field bean (Dolichos lablab), French bean or kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soybean (Glycine max).

 

Milling of pulses

 

Ø    Wet method:

 

1. Steeping in water in cement tank for 4-12 hours.

2. Hooping for 10 hours.

3. Drying for 2-4 days.

4. Store energy coaled mortars stipping space can be adjusted.

5. Aspiration to remove fines.

 

 

Ø    Dry method:

 

1. Cleaning and grading.

2. Pass through energy wated rollers for spitting & scretching.

3. 1-2 No linseed oil is added to facilitate dehulling.

4. Dry for 2-5 days.

 

Composition of Pulses:

 

The chemical composition of edible pulse seeds depends upon the species. In general, their protein content is high and is commonly more than twice that of cereal grains, usually constituting about 20 per cent of the dry weight of seeds. The protein content of some legumes like soy bean is as high as 40 per cent. The nutritional value of legumes is not just confined to their usefulness as a source of vegetable protein. They are rich in carbohydrate and some species like groundnut and soyabean are rich in oil. Pulse seeds are also sources of other nutritionally important materials, such as vitamins and minerals. However, their importance lies in their actual and potential value as a source of plant in human nutrition.

 

In adition to nutritional factors, pulses contain several heat-stable and heat-labile antinutritional and/or toxic factors. These include enzyme inhibitors, toxic substances, factors inciting clinical disorders, factors which interfere with digestion and flatulence-causing substances. These factors are to be reducded or eliminated to make pulse seeds more acceptable as a source of inexpensive nutritional proteins and maximize their utilization as human food.

 

 

 

          Chemical composition of pulses(per 100 gm edible portion)

 

 

1                           2         3         4        5       6       7          8       9         10         11        12        13        14        15

Name of             mois-   prot-    fat    mine   fib   carboh   Ene   cal-    iron    caro-     Thi-     Ribo-    Nia-   Vita- the pulses           ture      eins              rals     re    ydrates  rgy   cium               tene      amine   flavin   cin      min                                                                                                                                                                             C                                  (g)        (g)      (g)    (g)     (g)     (g)      Kcal   (mg)   (mg)   (µg)      (mg)    (mg)    (mg)   (mg)

Bengal gram Whole                     9.8     17.1     5.3    3.0     3.9    60.9    360      202    4.6     189        0.30    0.15      2.9      3 Cicer arietinum   Bengal gram Dhal                         9.9     20.8     5.6    2.7     1.2   59.8     372      56     5.3      129        0.48    0.18      2.4      1    Bengal gram Roasted                     10.7    22.5      5.2      2.5      1.0    58.1      369       58      9.5       113         0.20     0.18       1.3       0   Black gram            10.9  24.0      1.4     3.2     0.9   59.6      347    154     9.1        38        0.42    0.20      2.0      0 Phaseolus mungo   Cowpea Vigna catjang           13.4   24.1      1.0      3.2      3.8   54.5       323       77      8.6           12         0.51     0.20       1.3       0   Field bean              9.6    24.9     0.8     3.2     1.4   60.1     347       60    2.7           0         0.52    0.16      1.8      0  Dolichos lalab   Green gram           10.4   24.0    1.3      3.5     4.1  56.7      334     124    4.4          94        0.47    0.27       2.1     0 Phaseolus aureus   Horse gram           11.8   22. 0  0.5       3.2    5.3   57.2      321     287    8.4         71         0.42     0.20      1.5     1 Dolichos biflorus   Kesari dhal           10.0  28.2    0.6      2.3    2.3    56.6     345       90     6.3        120        0.39     0.17      2.9      0 Lathyrus sativus   Kidney bean        11.0   22.1   1.7      3.8    4.2     61.4    341      137    6.7         30         0.54    0.18        2.1      3 Phaseolus vulgaris   Lentil                   12.4   25.1   0.7     2.1    0.7     59.0    343        69     7.58       270        0.45    0.20        2.6      0 Lens esculenta   Moth                  10.8   23.6    1.1     3.5    4.5     56.5    330        202   9.5            9         0.45    0.09        1.5      2  Phaseolus aconitifolius   Peas                    16.0   19.7    1.1     2.2    4.5     56.5    315         75    7.01         39         0.47    0.19        3.4      0 Pisum sativum   Red gram          13.4    22.3   1.7     3.5    1.5     57.6    335         73     5.8         132        0.45    0.19        2.9       0 Cajanus cajan   Soyabean          8.1    42.2   19.5    4.6   3.7     20.9    432        240     11.5        426       0.73     0.39        3.2       0 Glycine max merr

 

v   Pulse Proteins:

 

  Pulse proteins are chiefly globulins but albumins are present in a few species. Their nutritional importance depends not only on the quantity of protein but also on its quality which in turn depends upon the amino acid composition. Pulse proteins are deficient in sulphurcontaining amino acids, particularly in methionine, and in tryptophan. It is only 0in the case of soyabean that the tryptophan level is equal to the FAO provisional pattern. All the pulses contain sufficient amounts of leucine and phenylalanine. Lysine and threonine contents are low only in groundnuts. Overall, the most satisfying pulse protein from the standpoint of the FAO provisional pattern is that of sovabean.

 

There are a number of factors which reduce the nutritional value of pulse proteins. A majority of pulse proteins have high molecular weights and are very compact molecules, and this reduces the digestibility of the native protein. Some proteins are found complexed with carbohydrates and the carbohydrate moiety has a negative influence on the digestibility of native protein. Proteins also form complexes with phytin and polyphenols present in pulses contributing to their low digestibility.

 

v   Carbohydrates:

 

           Food pulses contain about 55-60 per cent of total carbohydrates including starch, sugars, fibre and unabailable carbohydrates. Starch accounts for the major proportion of carbohydrates in legumes. The unavailable sugars in pulses include substantial levels of oligosaccharides of the faffinose family of sugars (raffinose, stachyose and verbiscore), which are notoriously known for the flatulence production in man and animals. These sugars escape digestion, when they are ingested, due to the lack of a-galactosidase activity in the mammalian mucosa. Consequently, the oligosacchatides are not absorbed into the blood and are digested by the microflora of the lower intestinal tract resulting in the production of large amounts of carbon dioxide and hydrogen and a small amount of megthane. Some of the methods used in processing pulses, such as germination, soaking, cooking and autoclaving, reduce considerable amounts of oligosaccharides. Fermentation also reduces oligosaccharides as has been observed during the fermentation of black gram and rice.

 

v   Lipids:

 

  Lipids form about 1.5 per cent of the dry matter in pulses except in groundnut, soyabean and winged beans. Most of the pulse lipids contain high amounts of polyunsaturated acids. These undergo oxidative rancidity during storage resulting in a number of undesirable change, such as loss of protein solubility, off-flavour development, and loss of nutritive quality.

 

 

 

v   Minerals:

 

 Pulses are important sources of calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron, potassium and phosphorus. A major portion (80 per cent) of phosphorus in many pulses is present as phytate phosphorus. Phytin complexes with proteins and minerals and renders them biologically unavailable to human beings and animals. Processing methods, such as cooking, soaking germination, fermentation, etc., can reduce or eliminate appreciable amounts of phytin.

 

v   Vitamins:

 

 Pulses contain small amounts of carotene, the provitamin A. Many pulses contain 50 to 300 international units of vitamin A per 100 g. Fresh pulses like peas may have a vitamin A activity considerably in excess of this figure.

The thiamine content of pulses is approximately equal to, or exceeds that of, whole cereals, the average value of the vitamin being 0.4 to 0.5 mg per 100 g of pulses. Pulses are also fairly fich in niacin (about 2.0 mg/100 g). They are poor in riboflavin and dry legumes are almost devoid of ascorbic acid.

 

 

 

Processing of pulses

 

(1)   Soaking

(2)   Germination

(3)   Decortication

(4)   Cooking

(5)   Fermentation

(6)   Pulse protein concentrates 

 

v   Soaking:

 

  Soaking in water is the first step in most methods of preparing pulses for consumption. As indicated above, soaking reduces the oligosaccharides of the raff nose family. Soaking also reduces the amount of phytic acid in pulse.

 

v   Germination:

 

Germination improves the nutritive value of food pulses. The ascobic acid content of pulses have been used to prevent and cure scurvy since the 18^th century. The riboflavin, niacin, choline and biotin contents of all pulses increase during germination. The folic acid content, however, greatly decreases and the pantothenic acid value remains practically unaltered.

 

Germination also brings about changes in the carbohydrates of the pulses, some of the starch being converted into sugars. The sprouts may be used either as a salad or a vegetable. The germination process reduces and/or eliminates most of the antinutritional and toxic factors in several pulses. Also preparations obtained from sprouted pulses, such as those of horse gram, green gram and bengal gram, by methods similar to those used in cooking dry seeds, are more delicious.

 

 

v   Decortication:

 

Dry pulse seeds have a fibrous seed coat (husk or skin) which often is indigestible and may have a bitter taste. In such cases the skin has to be removed. The germ is usually removed during dehusking and this may result in some loss of thiamine. Husked and split pulses are commonly used in India as dhals. Dhals may not be nutritionally as good as the whole seed, but its keeping qualities, cooking time and digestibility will be better.

                                A number of methods are available for decortication. A simple method is to soak the seeds for a short time in water; the husk takes up more water than the seeds and may be easily separated by rubbing while still moist. In the alternative, the soaked grains may be dried and the husk removed by pounding and winnowing. Roasting also renders the husk easier to separate, roasted legumes like those of bengal gram and peas are widely used in India.

 

 

v   Cooking:

 

Cooking destroys the enzyme inhibitors and thus improves the nutritional quality of food pulses. Cooking also improves the palatability, however, pulses should not be overcooked as this reduces the quality of proteins. Longer cooking causes a drop in the nutritive value of pulses as it results in the loss of lysine. Prolonged heating also results in loss of vitamins and consequent loss of nutritional value.

 

 

v   Fermentation:

 

The processing of food pulses by fermentation increases their digestibility, palatability value. Sovabean is a very valuable pulse whose proreins approach the quality of animal protein. However, it cannot be directly used as food because of the toxic substances present in the pulse. The toxic substances can be eliminated by fermentation. In south-East Asia various fermented products of soyabean (see Sect. 17.8) are produced and consumed on a large scale. It appears to be possible to prepare products from bengal gram similar to those of fermented soyabean products.

 

 

The preparation of idli from a blend of fermented black gram and rice has been described in chap. 16. this fermentation process improves the availability of essential amino acids and, thus, the nutritional quality of protein of the blend. In general, the nutritive value of the legume based fermented foods has been shown to be higher than their raw counterparts

 

v   Pulse protein concentrates:

 

  Separation of digestible protein from the indigestible portion of pulses is of great nutritional and economic importance. Such protein extracts have been made from soyabean(Subsection17.8.1)and groundnur cake  (Subsection 19.7.1) Such concentrates are free from antinutritional factors and provide nutritionally valuable proteins. Efforts to obtain such protein concentrates and isolates with low or no antinutritional factors will help solve the protein malnutrition problem of developing countries.

 

 

      Utilization of Pulses

 

The fruits and seeds of pulses can be utilized in a variety of ways and the nutritional value may be influenced markedly by the way in which they are used. Their use after they are subjected to some types of processing has been described above and the ways in which the unprocessed pulses are used are the following.

 

v   Mature seeds:

 

 A great bulk of pulse seeds are consumed in this form. It is convenient to use them this way as it is most economical to store the harvested crop as dry seeds (except the oil- containing legumes) without loss of nutritive value, provided the moisture content of the grains is low and the storage pests are avoided. There are, however, certain pulses, like the bean which become very hard on storage and require prolonged soaking and cooking before they are reduced to an acceptable condition for eating. The great majority of the pulses can be used as such after storage by soaking the dried seed followed by cooking in water.

 

v   Fresh Seeds :

 

Pulses which can be used as dry seeds can also be used as mature or immature fresh seeds. If the pods are tough and fibrous, the seed is separated and cooked in much the same way as dry seeds. Some of them are preferred to be cooked as fresh seeds as the products obtained have better taste and flavour than those of dry seeds.

 

 

v   Immature Pods:

 

 Pulses which produce pods that remain fleshy for two or three weeks before the fibre become hard can be used as green vegetables. This is the common way in which some beans (e.g., Phaseolus vulgaris) are used. The nutritional values of immature fruits are different from those of mature seeds; their protein contents are lower but they are relatively rich in vitamins and soluble carbohydrates.

 

Toxic Constituents of Pulses

 

The seeds of pulses include both edible and inedible types. Even amongst the edible legumes toxic principles occur and their elimination is important in order to exploit them for edible purposes. Two thermolabile factors are implicated in toxic effects. The first includes inhibitors of the enzymes trypsin, chymotrypsin and a-amylase and the second includes haemgglutinins, which impede the absorption of the products of digestion in the gut. In addition, legumes also contain a goitrogen, a toxic saponin, cyanogenic glycosides and alkaloids.

 

The inhibitor of trypsin is a protein found in a number of pulses. The inhibitor suppresses the release of amino acids and thus does not make for the normal growth of animals fed with such pulses. The trypsin ingibitor may stimulate the production of extra trypsin by pancreas and ultimately bring about its loss of activity. Haemagglutinins are also proteins and they combine with products of digestion and thus impair the efficiency of absorption of the digested products. Cyanogenic glycosides cause cyanide poisoning. On hydrolysis of the glycoside by the enzyme , b-glucosidase, hydrogen cyanide is liberated. However, a cyanide content in the range of 10-20 mg per 100 g of pulse is considered safe. Many legumes except lima bean (Phaseolus luntus) contain cyanide within this limit.

 

Saponins are a group of natural products possessing the property of producing lather or foam when shaken with water. These are glycosides of high molecular weight. Saponins have been reported in soyabean, sword bean (canavalia gladiata) and jack bean (canavalia ensiformis). Toxic saponins cause nausea and vomiting. These toxins can be eliminated by soaking prior to cooking. Alkaloids are known to occur in the seeds of many legumes but they are relatively innocuous.

Some compounds found in pulse seeds appear to fix iodine inducing a state of iodine deficiency in the thyroid, ebentually producing goitre. It is also possible that goitre is the result of blokade of iodine uptake by the thyroid in the presence of such compounds.

Two toxic substances in legumes produce serious pathological conditions. They are the factors in khesari dhal which causes lathyrism and the haemolytic factor in Vicia faba associated with the disease favism.

 

 

v   Lathyrism:

 

 Lathyrism is a paralytic disease affecting the lower limbs. The incidence of the disease is higher in males than females and recovery from the condition does not usually occur. The disease has been known since early times and there is reference to it in early Indian medical writings.

 

Serious outbreaks of lathyrism have occurred in this country quite a few times. The disease has been associated with consumption of khesari dhal and is commonly noticed in poor families who continuously eat considerable quantities of the dhal. Even when other crops fail, this legume thrives and ever, lathrism develops only when the consumption of dhal is high (300 g daily) and the diet does not contain adequate quantities of cereals and is used for a long time (6 months or more).

In lathyrism, the toxic substance interferes with the formation of normal collagen fibres in the connective tissue. The disease can be prevented by ensuring a reasonable balance between khesari dhal and other food materials and its replacement by other pulses where practicable.

 

v   Favism:

 

 Favism is haemolytic anaemia. The disease is almost entirely confined to persons living in the Mediterranean basin or of mediterranean origin. In severe cases of favism, death may occur within 24-48 hours of the onset of the attack. Children are more liable to succumb than adults. If the victim survives the acute stage, recovery usually takes about four weeks.

 

Favism is brought about by eating broad beans or by inhaling the pollen of the flower. The victim suffers from an inherited biochemical abnormality which affects the metabolism of glutathione in red blood cells and is the result of decreased activity of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. In persons with this abnormality the red cells are more prone to injury and destruction by certain drugs, such as sulphonamide, and this raises complications in the treatment of infectious diseases.

 

v   Elimination of Toxic Factors:

 

 It has already been indicated that soaking, heating and fermentation can reduce or eliminate most of the toxic factors of the pulses. Correct application of heat in cooking pulses can eliminate most toxic factors without impairment of nutritional value. Cooking also contributes towards pulse digestibility. Heat causes the denaturation of the proteins responsible for trypsin inhibition, haemagglutination and the enzyme responsible for the hydrolysis of cyanogenic glycosides. The mode of application of heat is important. Autoclaving and soaking followed by heating are effective. Another way of eliminating toxic factors is by fermentation, which yields products more digestible and of higher nutritive.

 

 

Pulses in Human Nutrition

 

 

Protein malnutrition is common in the third world countries. Pulse protein can serve a useful purpose in alleviating this situation. The animal proteins which are nutritionally the best are available only in small quantities in poor countries and there are limitations to their supply at the present levels even in rich countries. The average daily per capita consumption of animal protein in India is 6 g which is less than one-tenth of what it is in developed countries. Therefore, vegetable proteins, and in particular pulse proteins, have an important place in meeting the protein requirements of the world.

 

Though compared to animal protein, pulse foods have low nutritional value, it is possible to make pulses more acceptable as a source of inexpensive nutritious protein and maximize their utilization as human food. By the processing and blending of proteins from different sources, it should be possible to produce high quality proteins from plant sources with an amino acid profile as close as possible to that of good animal proteins. Such a formula can be prepared from a suitable combination of pulses, rice and oil seeds. Necessary technology has to be developed to harness the tremendous potential of pulses in human nutrition.

 

 

Some Important Pulses

 

Proper Pulses form an important item of diet all over India, being a good source of protein especially in the vegetarian diet. The nutrirional quality of a diet mainly based on cereal improves with a intake os pulses. The nutritional status of a pulse depends upon the protein content, its biological value, digestibility, essential amino acid composition, and the vitamin and mineral content. Based on these qualities, bengal gram and black gram have been assigned a higher order of nutritive merit; green gram, lentil and soyabean being the next best. Then follow red gram and horse gram ; the rest being comparatively inferior, mainly being low in their biological value rather than their protein content.

 

v   Bengal Gram (Cicer arietinum):

 

 Other names of this pulse are gram, chana and chickpea. This is the most important pulse crop of India, ranking fourth among the grain crops in area and production. In 1981, it was cultivated in an area of 6.7 million hectars with a production of 4.6 million tonnes. The yield per unit area is 6.90 quintals per hectare and this has remained constant for over 30 years. There is a need to increase the production of this pulse and other pulses by developing appropriate agricultural technology. The crop is also grown in the Mediterranean region and a few other countries.

 

The Bengal gram seeds vary in size and are beaked, round, semi-round, wrinkled or semi-wrinkled in shape. The seed-coat is either brown, light brown, yellow, orange, black, white or green. The cotyledons are yellow or pale yellow.

 

The immature grain is eaten raw or boiled as a vegetable, spiced and cooked. When ripe, the grain is consumed in the form of whole grain, dhal and basin (gram flour). The whole grain is also consumed after cooking and maixing with salt or suger or spices. Gram flour is used as one of the chief ingredients, along with ghee and sugar, in the preparation of many forms of India confectionery, such as Mysore-pak. Savory items bajias are also made out of it.

 

In Gujarat, Khaman a fermented product prepared from coarsely ground bengal gram dhal and salt, and cookde like dhokla, is very popular.

 

The proteins of the gram are deficient in tryptophan and sulphur-con-taining amino acids. The proteins are more digestible and better assimilated than those in other pulses. On the whole, Bengal gram protein is the best pulse protein owing to its high net-protein-utilization value.

 

 

 

v   Red Gram (Cajanus cajan):

 

Red gram is also known as pigeon pea, because its seeds are the favourite food of wild pigeons. It is a highly esteemed food in India, especially in the south and figures in the daily food of a considerable number of people. Its tender green pods constitute a favourite vegetable in some parts. It is largely eaten in the form of split pulse as dhal. It is consumed in various ways but most often in South India it is cooked with spices and vegetables, and consumed as sambar.

 

Rad gram is now cultivated in different parts of the world. It is a native of africa and is being cultivated in India from a very long time. Numerous types of red gram are known which vary in colour, size and shape of pods and seeds. Some 86 different types are grown in India. These types are grauped under two distinet varieties: arhar (C. cajan var bicolor) mostly grown in North India and tur (C.cajan var flavus) grown in the south. The total red gram production in the country in 1981 was 2.0 million tonnes, cultivated in an area of about 2.8 million hectares.

 

The seeds differ in size, shape and colour of the seedcoat. Based on size, they are distinfuished as large, medium and small. The seeds may be round,oval or kidney shaped. The colour of the seed may be white, light brown,dark brown and pinkish black.

 

The seeds of red gram are split into dhal before marketing. Both dry and wet methods are used in making dhal. In the dry method, the seeds are dried in the sun for 3-4 days and then split in a mill. The seeds are sometimes smeared with a small quantity of vegetable oil to soften the seed coat and facilitate the milling. In the wet method, the seeds are first soaked in water for 6-10 hours. They are then mixed with red earth, heaped and left overnight. Then the seeds are dried in the sun, sieved and winnowed to remove the earth, and finally split into dhal in a pestle-and-mortar(chakki). This split dhal is cleaned by winnowing and treated with some oil to preserve its quality.

 

v   Black gram (Phaseolus mungo roxb):

 

Black gram or urd belongs to the genus phaseolus, which comprises 230 species of which 20 are cultivated for their edible pods or seeds. Based on origin, the species are divided into two groups, the Asiatic and the American pulses are generally accepted as being members of the genus phaseolus,while the Asiatic pulses are assigned either to the genus Vigna or Adzukia. Pulses other than black gram belonging to this genus which are important in India are green gram and moth.Black gram has been reported to have originated in India. It is the most highly prized of all pulses of the genus phaseolus. It is cultivated in all parts of the country in an area of 1.5 million hectares producing about 0.5 million tonnes.

 

 

It has a mucilaginous material (see Subsection 16.3.1) which makes it a valuable ingredient in idli preparation. The chief proteins present in black gram are albumins and globulins (55-56 per cent). It also has prolamines and glutelins(24-25 per cent).Germination of the black gram reduces the phytin content and increases the vitamin content. By the action of proteolytic enzymes, protein degradation products are formed.Black gram flour is the chief constituent of the highly popular waferbiscuit known as papad. Black gram dhal is an important ingredient in the preparation of idli and dosa. It forms the main base of some fried savory and sweet preparations, such as vada and Jahangir, which enjoy popularity on account of their special and textural attributes. Like mung and moth, urd dhal bhals are fried in fat, salted and eaten as snack.

 

v   Green gram (Phaseolus aureus):

 

 Green gram or mung is being contivated in India for over 2000 years. Currently about 0.5 million tonnes are produced from a coltivated area of about 1.2-1.3 million hectares. The yield of seeds is low being between 2.5 and 3.0 quintals per hectare.The seeds are used as whole seed or dhal. The protein content of the pulse is high and is easily digested. The proteins are deficiend in methionine, systeine and tryptophon.Green gram, whole or split, is used in a variety of ways in the Indian homes. Dry seeds or  sproute whole seeds are used in the preparation of corry and a number of savoury dishes. Sweet dishes also are made from green gram. Split and dehusked green gram, soaked for some time, is used in the preparation of salads or fried in a little fat and salted, and is used as a snack.

 

v   Moth Bean (Phaseolus aconitifolius):

 

Moth bean or terapy bean is a native of India and it grows wild, in the country, the seeds are small, up to 0.5 mm long,2 to 3 mm wide,yellow or brown in colour or mottled black, somewhat uniform in shape with rounded or truncated ends. The yield of the grain is low. The grain is used either whole or split as a dhal. The whole grain, after frying, is mixed with other savoury dishes to make “dhalmoth”.

 

v   Lentil (Lens culinaris):

 

 Lentil or masur has been known in India as an article of food from the most ancient times. It is cultivated mostly in the north. In 1980, it was grown in an area of about 0.9 million hectares and with a production of nearly about 0.45 million tonnes. The yield is about 500 kg per hectare.Germination of the pulse increases its biological value. In nutrition, lentil occupies a place second only to Bengal gram and black gram.Lentil is mostly used as dhal in the preparation of soups flavoured with spices. Young pods are eaten as vegetables.

 

 

v   Horse Gram (Dolichos biflorus):

 

Horse gram or kulthi is grown largely in South India. The seeds are small, flattened, light red, brown-black or mottled.

 

Horse gram is extensively used in South India as teed for cattle and horses in the same way as Bengal gram is used in North India. The seeds are cooked before feeding. The legume is the poor man’s pulse. It is eaten by poor people both boiled and fried. It can be eaten whole or after whole or after grinding into a meal, unlike other pulses which are consumed after splitting. Germinated seeds and seedlings are also used in cooking.

 

 

v   Field Bean (Doliehos lablab):

 

Dolichos lablab is of Asian origin and there are two varieties: one is an annual,commonly cultivated as a garden crop; and the other, perennial in varying degrees, sultivated as a field crop. The two varieties have been designated D.lablab var typicus and D. lablab var lignosus (field bean). They are of varying colours ranging  from white to green or purple. The seeds are white, yellow, brownish purple or black.

 

Field bean is popular as a vegetable. The pods in most cases retain their tenderness until they attain full size; therefore, the seeds alone can be utilized. Lablab var lignosus is valued more for the seeds than the pods. Green pods are gathered at all stages of development and tender seeds eaten fried or cooked, and salted in the same manner as green pea. Ripe and dried seeds are consumed as split pulse, while seeds are sometimes soaked in whater overnight and when germination starts, they are sun dried and stored for future use.

 

v   Pea (Pisum sativum):

 

 There are two kinds of peas-the field pea and the garden pea. The field peas are small, round and tender, while the garden peas are large and smooth or wrinkled. The field pea is grown as a dry pulse, whereas the garden pea, in addition, can be harvested immature and the immature seeds cooked as vegetables.Several varieties of garden peas and field peas are grown in India. In 1980, the area under peas was 0.68 million hectares with a production of over 430 thousand tonnes. The average yield of green pods is 43.5 quintals per hectare.Peas are consumed in India in a variety of ways. The fresh ones are consumed as such or canned, curried and dehydrated. The dry ones of certain green-seeded various colours are used as pulse mostly in the split form. Dry peas of various colours are used as pulse mostly in the split form. Dry peas are also used for making flour which can be used as a substitute for Bengal gram flour.

 

 

The pods of some garden peas lack the parchment tissue on the inner pod walls and these are known as sugar peas. These can be chopped like those of fresh bean or the garden lablab, so that the entire pod can be used. How-ever, these are hardly known in India .

 

 

v   Khesari Dhal ( Lathyrus sativus):

 

 Khesari dhal is grown to the greatest extent in India and to a lesser extent in a few other countries of the Eastern and Mediterranean regions. The greatest drawback to its use is the occurrence of the pathological condition of lathyrism (Subsection 17.5.1) amongst people who consume it in large quantities, as has frequently happened in India.The pulse grows under adverse conditions and is commonly grown in paddy areas. The yield is low and averages about 280 kg per hectare.

 

 

v   Cluster Bean (Cyamopsis tetragenoloba):

 

 Cluster bean or guar is indegenous to India and has been grown from early times for vegetable and forage purposes. This is grown in an area of about 1.6 million hectares with a production of 373 thousand tonnes. The yield of green pods varies from 4500-7500kg per hectare and the average yield of seed is 650-750 kg per hectare.In India, the young tender pods are used as a favorite vegetable. The pods are also preserved after drying and salting and eaten after frying. The seeds are very mucilaginous and they find a range of uses as a thickener in food products and for sizing textile and paper products.

 

v   Cow pea (Vigna unguiculata):

 

Cow pea is one of the commonly used pulses in India, but is not extensively grown. Yet it is one of the pulses used from ancient times. The yield is rather low being about 400-700 kg per hectare. The seeds vary in size, shape and colour.In India, cow pea is used whole or as dhal. It is also used as flour after husking or with the husk. The pods are used as a vegetable when tender. The seeds may be germinated and the seedlings eaten. Cow pea is considered inferior to blackgram as a food being difficult to digest.

 

v   Kidney Bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris) :

 

This bean is known by a great many names, nons of which has more than local significance. Names, such as fresh bean, snap bean, salad bean, green bean, apply to varieties used as vegetables; those that are used as pulses are denoted by such names as dry bean and navy bean. The name common bean is used because it is the most ubiquitous bean of consumption.

 

 

The bean is grown in different parts of the world. The beans vary in size, shape and colour of pods and seeds. Green pods are harvested before they become fully grown, tough and stringy. Dry beans are harvested when pods are fully ripe. The yield of green

pods varies from 2,500 to 3,500 kg per hectare, while the yield of dry beans varies from 1,500 to 2,000 kg per hectare.The beans are used as a green vegetable or dry pulse, according to the stage at which they are harvested. French bean, the most important variety used as a vegetable, has a fleshu-walled pod with less fibers in the younger stages. The dry bean is an important source of food.

 

 

Introduction of Soyabean

 

Soyabean or soybean is both a useful pulse and an oilseed. It is an important food crop in China, Japan and Korea. It is also cultibated in India and throughout South-East Asia. From China, soyabean weat to Europe in 1792 and to the United States in 1804. In the United States, more than 1000 types of soyabean are grown essentially as an oil-seed crop and the country stands first in the world , both in the area under cultivation and production (58 per cent of the world production). China comes next with about 35 per cernt of the world production). China comes next with about 35 per cent of the world production. All other countries put together produce about 7 per cent of total world production.In India, soyabean is grown in the northern hill parts but its introduction as a food has proved difficult because of its indigestibility and unpalatability. With appropriate processing, soyabean can be a useful pulse food in the country.Different varieties of soyabean with different coloured seeds, varying from white, yellow and brown to black are produced. Their chemical composition depends upon the variety.

 

Soyabean utilization for food in China, Japan and other countries is high. In china, of the average daily consumption of legumes of 42 g per capita, 18 g are soyabean. In Japan, it was noticed that in an area where the average pulse intake was 70 g daily, 64 g were soyabean in various forms. This is because of the advanced Japanese technology in the processing and manufacture of highly acceptable and palatable soyabean products.Soyabean, with its high protein content, could be a substitute for expensive meat products, as there is a worldwide shortage of affordable protein. it is estimated that one hectare of land used for grazing purposes will produce enough meat to satisfy one man’s protein needs for 190 days; planted in wheat it will provide enough provide enough protein for 5,496 days. Soyabean is being used to produce textured vegetable protein (TVP) to replace meat. Cheap soyabean meal feeds are used for growing livestock and poultry.

 

In addition to its use a source of oil, a protein substitute and animal feed, soyabean finds hundreds of uses in home and industry, it is added to pastry toppings, baby foods, candy bars, salad dressings, cake mixes and bread.

 

Processing of Soyabean

 

                                                             Protein                  - 40N

                                                Oil                         - 20N

                                                Ash                        - 5N

                                                Carbohydrate         - 30-33N

                                                Starch                    - absent

 

 

 

Overview of Soyabean

The cost and return of producing soybeans in three different countries are shown in Table 28. Even the production costs and returns do not correspond to the same period, they are valid for comparison purposes, obviously with that reservation. The only direct valid comparison is that of South Vietnam, in the Mekong Delta.The importance of an improved technology or better cultural practices is evident if the costs and returns obtained by farmers during 1993 are compared with those of producing soybeans testing (experimental) better cultural practices. In this case, a dual benefit was obtained since 60 more workdays were used per hectare and a higher net return was reached. The main differences between these two production methods in Mekong Delta were the use of less seed (60 compared to 100 kg), the use of less of one of the fertilizers (50 kg compared to 70 kg) and an additional (CaCO₃, 500 kg), the use of 10 more bottles of chemicals and the additional costs of gasoline (25 litres) and other. In spite of the higher operating costs (US$ 498.3 compared to 336.8) the improved production scheme had a higher net return. This was mainly due to the increase (78 percent) in soybean productivity, which doubled the net return.

The costs and returns of producing soybeans in the US and Mexico can be compared even they are from 2 different years (subsequent). In both countries soybean farming is mechanized. In the case of Mexico, the data correspond to the costs of producing soybeans with own machinery. Data were classified in specific categories whenever the available information allowed. It is clear, that some activities include costs of required materials and labour. One of the main differences in soybean production practices in Mexico and the United States are the intense use of water (100 percent compared to 5 percent), which increase the production costs. The purchase of irrigation water represented almost 15 percent of the operating costs. In addition, the costs of chemicals, fertilizers and seed for planting are higher in Mexico than in the United States. In Mexico, the operating cost per hectare of soybeans during 1999 was US$ 442.00 (corresponding 29 percent to the cost of inputs), whereas that in the United States was US$ 196.00 during 1998. For the same periods, the net returns per hectare for Mexican and American farmers were US$58.00 and US$355.45, respectively. These numbers explain why Mexican farmers do not want to grow soybeans.

In South Vietnam, soybean farming is not mechanized. Thuy et al. (1998) reported that it often takes 2 workdays to sow a hectare of land. Weeding is done by hand. A total of 40 men are needed for weeding a hectare and this activity has to be done from 2 to 3 times during the cropping season.In Argentina, the cost of soybean harvesting under no tillage represented 10 percent over gross profit (price x yield) (Larreche and Firpo Brenta, 1999). In Mexico, the cost of harvest the 1999 soybean crop under no tillage represented 9.4 percent of the gross profit.

There is a tendency to use less insecticide in soybean production. Argentina and Brazil are using less insecticide and lower number of applications. Larreche et al. (1999) reported insecticide costs up to US$ 5.00 per hectare for the successful control of insects. The implementation of integrated pest management has allowed these two countries the reduction in the use of insecticides.In Mexico, soybean crop required 23.7 workdays per hectare in the 80’s (Marquez-Berber, 1989). In 1995, labour utilization was 12.7 workdays per hectare for farmers not owing machinery. In 1999, labour utilization was 10 workdays per hectare; 2 people hired and 8 people eventually hired (Banco de Mexico and FIRA, 1995; 1999). Table 29 shows the labour employed in the different operations of soybean cropping during 1995. Irrigation was the most labour demanding operation; almost 60 percent of the total labour hired performed irrigation work.

Diseases, pests and weeds are the main concern of soybean farmers worldwide. Annually, soybean yield losses are about 15 percent. In some places, yield losses are higher, especially when a new pest or disease invades the soybean fields. In Mexico, almost 16 percent of the total operating costs per hectare of soybean are spent on disease, pests and weeds control. In the United States, the expenditure for disease, pests and weeds control is about 33 percent of the total operating cost. It is worthwhile to remember that the operating cost of producing a soybean hectare in Mexico is 2.25 times higher than that in the United States. It seems that the use of resistant cultivars (to insects, diseases and herbicides), better cultural practices and integrated pest management are the most effective forms of counteracting the effects of these important biotic factors. The other losses in the post-production chain can be more easily controlled. Cares on soybean handling throughout the postharvest system will have an effect on the reduction of postharvest losses. To diminish soybean postharvest losses the following precautions should be taken:

1.     Harvest soybeans at maturity, ideally at the safe storage moisture. If soybeans are harvested at higher moisture, dry the beans as soon as possible. Never use drying temperatures higher than 76^oC since higher temperatures cause discoloration and soybean protein denaturation.

2.     Clean the beans. Remove as much as possible of the foreign material splits and damage seeds. It is recommended to clean the beans before artificially drying is done. In this way, all heat will be used to dry the beans.

3.     Clean and if it is possible, fumigate the handling equipment (including trucks or railcars) and the storage facility where the soybeans will be stored.

4.     Check that thermocouples in the storage facility measure temperature properly.

5.     Check the initial moisture content and condition of the beans.

6.     Check the condition of the beans periodically and make some inspections in the storage facility looking for insects and other storage pests.

  Net return of soybean production by farmers in three different countries

 

  

 

 Labour (workday) employed per soybean hectare in Mexico, during 1995

 

Source: Banco de Mexico and FIRA (1995).

 

Major problems In Soyabean

The major problems that soybean small-holders face are the lack of drying facilities, inadequate storage facilities and inadequate drying and lack of cleaning equipment. These problems are present mainly in rural areas of tropical and subtropical regions. On the other hand, the major problems that medium-scale soybean farmers face are pests, diseases and weeds, labour shortage, especially in Asia where most of the operations of soybean cropping are manually done, lack of high quality seed, lack of cultivars resistant to diseases or insects, lack of economical resources to buy the required inputs (fertilizer, herbicides, chemicals), poor control of pests.To sell or store corn and soybeans is the decision at hand as harvest approaches. Storing corn has been profitable

 

during the past several years. The market has not offered an incentive to store soybeans during that time, largely because of large soybean crops in South America.For 2002 crops, basis contracts or futures contracts appear to be less expensive than storage for both of the crops. Minimum price contracts or options are alternatives with less risk. Also, consider preharvest sales using these tools. Consider scaling-up sales if prices move toward the highs that occurred on Aug. 14, which were $2.88 in December corn futures and $5.79 in November soybean futures.

Futures prices for both crops have improved considerably in the last two months. The December corn contract has increased about 60 cents and the November soybean contract has gone up about $1. These nearby futures prices have improved more than the deferred contracts, especially for corn, to the point where the deferred contract prices are almost the same as the nearby price, especially for soybeans. This price structure makes it difficult to achieve a profit on storage hedges unless basis improves considerably.Bases for corn and soybeans in east central North Dakota appear to be approximately following the 10-year olympic average (highs and lows excluded from the average). If that average continues to be followed, then the bases for both would be expected to improve into the winter and spring. Unfortunately the improvement would not offset storage costs.

Gains in corn futures prices beyond recent highs would have to come from the unexpected. December futures around $2.80 would be expected for the fundamentals outlined in USDA’s August Supply and Demand Report. Key numbers include an 8.89 billion bushel crop, 7.77 billion bushels of domestic use and 2 billion bushels of exports. Corn futures are near the 10-year highs, excluding 1995-96.For soybeans, the outlook is less clear. Stocks as tight as what USDA projected in August would have resulted in at least $6.00 futures in the past. But that was before South America became such a major force in the market. Soybean futures prices are at about the 10-year mid-range.The use of marketing tools that could take advantage of unexpectedly higher prices may be more important for soybeans than for corn. Soybean prices will likely be as sensitive to South American growing conditions as they have been to ours.

 

Best Agronomic Practices for IP Soybean Production

A unique economic opportunity exists for Ontario’s soybean growers with Identity Preserved (IP) soybeans. IP refers to segregating specific soybean varieties for specific end markets such as non-GMO or food-use soybeans. IP soybeans offer additional profit potential for growers through product premiums and competitive soybean varieties. IP contracts also present the opportunity to reduce price volatility through preset agreements with processors and customers, allowing for reduced risk in financial

 

planning. Essentially, IP soybeans are the next step in capturing additional value from what has historically been a pure commodity market. A successful IP soybean grower must be willing to manage his crop closely to meet the requirements of the IP contract. However, many of the management requirements for successful IP production also lend themselves well to successful commodity production. The agronomic practices defined here are intended to serve only as a general guide for producers. Please consult your IP contractor for specific IP contract requirements.

 

Weed Control for IP Soybeans

Weed control is an essential element in the production of IP soybeans. Effective weed control prevents staining or contaminations of the crop by weed seeds. Weed control, especially during critical growth stages, also prevents any negative impact on crop yield. As a result, reliable, broad-spectrum, season-long control is critical for success in IP production. In general, broadleaf weeds, which are more frequently present at harvest, are a greater concern than grassy weeds in IP production. Contracts may specify that the receipts for seed and chemicals be provided to the contractor to ensure that the conditions of variety and chemical use were followed. Many growers count on the reliable, broad-spectrum control they get with CLEAN SWEEP to obtain the weed control they need. CLEAN SWEEP’s proven, season-long control ensures that multiple-flushing weeds are not a problem, early in the season through to harvest. CLEAN SWEEP is also safe on all varieties so growers can choose the best variety option for their farm. PUSUIT plus a burndown provides the same reliable control for no-till growers.

Key Weeds to Control

While all weeds off a challenge because of their competition with the crop for nutrients and moisture, IP soybean production requires more attention be given to a specific group of weeds. They key weeds of concern are those that offer the greatest potential for staining of the seed during harvest.

Ragweed - is quite tolerant to frost and often maintains lush, green leaves through the season that can potentially stain the seed coat during harvest.

Nightshade - berries can significantly stain the seed coat.

Lamb’s-quarters - is quite tolerant to frost and often maintains lush, green leaves through the season that can potentially stain the seed coat during harvest.

Acceptable Level of Infestation

The successful IP grower should endeavour to maintain a relatively weed-free field throughout the growing season, particularly at harvest. During the season, frequent scouting and re-evaluation will allow the grower to make an educated decision as to the effect the existing weed population will have on the harvestability of the crop. A program such as CLEAN SWEEP or PURSUIT plus a burndown, with their proven season-long control, reduces the risk of late flushes of weeds causing harvest problems. Growers should consult with their contractor if weed problems arise.

Potential for Contamination

The entire concept of IP is dependent on the fact that every bean has the same desired trait. The contamination of a load could potentially cause the rejection of the entire load and the loss of the premium. Contaminants can range from weed seeds to other soybean varieties. Genetically modified soybeans, like Roundup Ready‘ varieties, are a particular concern for potential contamination. Depending on the contract, this can mean that buffer zones must be established or that no other genetically modified soybeans be grown on the farm. If not detected until further into the handling process, contamination could lead to very serious penalties for the grower and the processor.

Contaminated Equipment

Using equipment that has also been used to harvest or transport a different variety or crop is a potential source of contamination. Producers must ensure that equipment, whether it is owned or that of a customer operator is free of contaminants.

Growers can avoid using contaminated equipment by:

·         Running the combine long enough to thoroughly empty the hopper and legs of other varieties. (Some contracts may specify that initially a certain distance of the IP soybean field be harvested and sold as commodity grain to further ensure a clean auger and bin in the combine.)

·         Physically cleaning out the hopper and auger before beginning the specialty harvest.

·         Carefully cleaning trucks and storage bins.

Maintaining Quality in Soyabean

v    Harvest

Growers of IP crops often receive specific harvest instructions in an effort to maintain the quality of the crop. Typical instructions include:

·         Soybeans must be harvested in such a way as to prevent splits and moisture or dust on the bean.

·         The grower should make an effort to harvest only in warm, dry weather; this will prevent mud-tag that commonly occurs in moist conditions.

·         Because soybeans contaminated with corn don’t meet contract specifications, growers must eliminate any corn standing in the field before harvest.

·         Harvesting weedy patches separately helps prevent staining of the seed coat.

·         Some soybean contracts require that growers do not begin harvest until the soybeans are at or below 13% moisture.

Other harvest suggestions to maintain harvest purity include:
Physically clean out the hopper and auger before beginning the IP harvest.
Carefully clean trucks and storage bins.
Harvest border rows of the IP field and sell as crusher beans to prevent contamination.

v   Storage

Two major concerns with storing IP soybeans are maintaining the identity/purity of the grain and preserving its quality. Though most IP growers are not required to have special storage facilities, modern facilities can be of benefit for IP production. Thoroughly cleaning bins minimizes the risk of quality deterioration from storage molds and insects. Depending on the end use of the grain, storage may be strictly regulated. If growing food grade soybeans, the storage provisions can be very significant. Storage requirements can include:

·         Use of aeration.

·         Insect control (Please note that insecticide use may be prohibited.)

·         When unloading the bin, make sure there is no mold at the top or along the sides.

·         Vacuum off any mold prior to unloading.

·         Leave any soybeans stuck to the wall or floor to prevent contamination of the remaining soybeans.

·         Label the bins with the specific crop being stored and the date it was filled.

It is a good idea to keep a record of where the crop was grown, what inputs were used and proposed improvements. Integrated pest management, the use of fungicide treated seed as well as soybeans resistant to the main pests and diseases in the different soybean producing areas, improved cultural practices, the use of glyphosate-resistant soybeans, soybean cultivars resistant to adverse handling and storage conditions are the most profitable improvements that may contribute to a decrease in soybean postharvest losses. 

v   Small-scale technology

In the last decade, technologies for small-scale refineries and for small-scale soymilk production have been developed. Adoption of these technologies has contributed to higher soybean consumption in several countries, especially those unable to invest in big processing plants or where the product’s demand is small. An alternative to solvent-extraction is the dry extruder called "Insta-Pro", which is a complete ExPress system. Sixty plants have been established in the United States and Canada with a capacity between 10 to 100 tonnes/day. In India, this technology is being used mainly in rural areas. Inexpensive machines (ASSOY) capable of producing 20 litres of soymilk/batch are available. To date, 300 machines have been sold in Russia. Soymilk produced by the ASSOY machine is used by the Feed the Children Program.

v   Fortification of staple foods with soybeans

Many staple foods have been fortified with soybean or soybean products throughout the world. In Mexico, corn tortillas are being fortified with 4 to 5 percent soyflour plus minerals. In Guatemala, fortification of flours, gruels, cookies and other foods are fortified with soy proteins. In Costa Rica, annually 100 metric tonnes of soyflour are incorporated into the wheat flour, which is used to make baked products and other. In India, several foods are being fortified with soybean or soybean products and being used in Welfare Programs.

v   Modifications to soybean cultivars

Soybean composition has been modified in the last two decades. In early 1990’s, soybeans that lack lipoxygenase enzyme were developed. These soybeans have the functional properties of traditional soybeans with less bean-like flavour. Later, soybeans with higher protein content, higher sucrose level and lower oligosaccharides, altered fatty acid compositions of the oil, higher fermentable sugars and higher yield were developed. More recently, the use of "organic" farming techniques has gained followers. On the other hand, genetically modified (GMO) soybeans have generated controversy. There are some who are willing to pay premiums in the market place for certified GMO free soybeans. The specific composition and functional properties of the modified soybeans make necessary to preserve the identity of soybeans throughout the food system, which necessarily will change the actual marketing system. A bushel of soybeans (commodity) is paid at US$ 5, whereas a bushel of identity preserved soybeans is paid by some processors at US$ 18. The economic implications that this may bring about are enormous.

There is a concern about assessing the safety of foods and food ingredients derived from genetically modified plants. Expert consultations convened by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Health Organization (WHO) and Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have recommended that the concept "substantial equivalence" be an important component in the safety assessment of foods and food ingredients derived from genetically modified plants intended for human consumption (OECD, 1993; FAO, 1996). The approach is not intended to establish absolute safety but to consider whether the genetically modified food is as safe as its traditional counterpart, where such a counterpart exists. Data for comparison should be obtained using validated methods and analysed using appropriate statistical techniques. In the case of GMO soybeans, the agronomic advantage (higher yield) is evident, at least so far, but the risks to human health and environment need to be evaluated according to guidelines of FAO/WHO. Factors that must be taken into account in the assessment of safety include: identity, source, composition, effects of processing/cooking, transformation process, recombinant DNA involved, protein expression product of the novel DNA (effects on function, potential toxicity, potential allergenicity), possible secondary effects on gene expression or the disruption of the host DNA or metabolic pathways and potential intake and dietary impact of the introduction of the GMO food (FAO/WHO, 2000).

 

Growing Organic Soybeans on CRP Land

 

v   Determining Your Market

            One of the first issues to address is your market. The majority of organic soybeans are going to Japan for use in the “tofu” market, although organic soybeans are also used for tofu and other soy products in the U.S. Edible soybeans are clear-hilum beans (no black mark on the seed). In the IDALS booklet, you will find a list of buyers for organic grains. Check with them first to determine the market prices you can contract with them for the 1998 growing season [contracts based on acreage (regardless of yields) vs. bushels are best; you don’t always know what you’re going to get your first years]. Organic production generally increases as the farm progresses to a more organic situation (improved soil health and balanced insect populations). Average organic soybean yields this year ranged from 25 bu/A to 53 bu/A on the best farms. Prices received in 1999 ranged from $20/bu to $12/bu (see variety selection below) for certified organic beans.

v   Certified Organic

            In order to sell your crop as certified organic, you must be certified by one of the certifying agencies listed on the Organic Information Fact Sheet. Each certifying agency has its own rules, but in general, they will require the following:

·        No synthetic fertilizers for three years

·        No synthetic pesticides (fungicides, insecticides, herbicides) for three years

·        Crop rotations (at least three out of four years); necessary for breaking up weed, insect and disease cycles and maintaining soil fertility

·        No synthetic hormones or antibiotics for livestock; organic feeds and pastures required.

            Soil fertility in organic systems is maintained through crop rotations (usually soybeans-corn-oats-alfalfa or some variation of this system), applications of manure (manure from non-organic farms must be composted for 6 weeks before application or applied 3 months prior to crop harvest), and/or applications of seaweed, fish emulsion or plant/animal-based products, such as feathermeal. Soybeans add nitrogen to the soil and can be grown without fertilizer in their first year. Subsequent crops must include rotations of grain crops (ideally with nitrogen-adding cover crops) in order to maintain adequate fertility for future soybean crops.

v   Land Preparation

            CRP land must be adequately prepared for organic soybean production. Grasses in the CRP land must be DEAD before planting beans. In order to assure this, one should plow (mold-board plow) in the fall and plant a cover crop of winter rye to help with erosion, weed control (the rye serves as a repellent to many weeds) and provide some organic matter when turned under in the spring. If planting is not feasible past October, you should still plow to help break up the soil and kill the grasses. It may take 2 to 4 tillage operations to break up the soil and kill the grasses before planting. The ground should be relatively smooth and friable before planting to allow for good seed-to-soil contact. Planting populations (rates/A) will depend on the soybean variety planted, but in general, planting populations are high to provide quicker, in-row shading and weed management. Again, check with your market: some buyers require large beans (e.g., Vintons), others prefer smaller sizes (e.g., Pioneer 9305 or ISU varieties). Take a soil sample (sample in at least four places per acre) to determine if lime is needed for adjusting your pH. Your local county Extension office can help you with soil sample information and where to send the sample.  

v   Planting and Weed Management

            Field cultivators will kill most rye cover crops at the 6 to 8 inch stage, with scratchers dragging behind to bring residue to the surface. If needed, taller rye can be cut with a stalk chopper first. After waiting about a week for the disturbed weed seeds to germinate, a second field cultivation will kill the remaining rye crop. Plant soybean seed at least 1 inch deep when the ground has sufficiently warmed. Some organic farmers believe that adequate ground temperature is critical, and did not plant their soybean crop until June this year. Weed control is the most critical element of organic soybean production. Tillage operations are both an art and science. You should rotary-hoe weeds (in the white-root stage) 3 to 5 days after planting at a slow speed (5 mph) for good penetration; at 7 to 10 days (once beans have emerged), hoe again a little faster (7-9 mph) to enhance surface aggressiveness. You should check the hoe’s penetration, weed kill and crop response to determine optimal speed and depth. Cultivate as quickly as possible at a slow speed the first time. In mid-growing season (when plants are flowering), cultivate again at a faster speed (to throw about 1 inch of soil up around plants). The last cultivation should again be slow (5 mph). Cultivator additions which help many organic farmers include guidance mirrors, disk hillers, metal tent shields, and sweep configurations (e.g., “26-inch one-piece sweeps in 36-inch row spacings”). Details on cultivators and recommended tillage operations can be found in the book, “Steel in the Field” by the USDA Sustainable Agriculture Network (available through ISU for $17).

v   Harvesting and Subsequent Crops

            The harvesting, cleaning and storing of certified organic soybeans is specified by your certification agency.  All certified organic beans must be separated from conventional beans, so combines, cleaners and bins must be cleaned between conventional and organic harvests (particularly important if hiring operators/machines). Storage bins must be free of other products and used only for organic beans. It is best to purchase a separate storage bin for your organic beans. With clear-hilum soybeans, clean beans, free of discoloring soil and/or weed seeds, are more important than with soybeans used for feed. An easy technique is to wait until weeds are dead before combining. There are various methods to keep soybeans as clean as possible during harvest (e.g. combines with dual rotating screens, “dirt guards,” smooth plates to prevent soil contamination, etc.). Cleaner beans equal higher prices from buyers. Buyers usually require samples from each load supplied. Clean-out usually averages 10-15%. There is a market for cull beans (splits and small beans) so check with your buyer. There is also a market for “transitional” beans (crops in the three-year transition phase between conventional and organic). Because rye is not a good cover crop prior to corn, oats may selected instead. At leaf-yellowing, oats can be over-seeded into soybean fields. Freezing weather kills the oats, but stalks remain on the surface to protect the soil from spring erosion. Organic corn currently is priced at a 100% premium over conventional corn, but with the new rules from the USDA Organic Agriculture Program arriving in 1998, the need for organic corn for livestock feed may escalate and drive prices even higher. Rotations will always be key in a properly functioning organic farm to help break up insect, weed and disease cycles, so you should always plan for subsequent crops to organic soybeans.

 

Processeced Soyabean Products

 

As food soyabean may be flaked, ground or powdered, and made into a sauce, oil or meal. Some of the processeced food products of soyabean are discussed below.

 

 

 

v   Extracted Soyabean Proteins:

 

Two readily digestible proteins are separated from the indigestible portion of soyabean. They are soyabean curd and soyabean milk. These products are commonly prepared and used in China and japan. Technology for processing these products from soyabean has also been developed in this country.

 

 

v   Soyabean curd:

 

 A curd  called “Tofu” is obtained by grinding soaked beans into an emulsion followed by cooking and straining. The curd is precipitated from the milky fluid by the addition of calcium sulphate, allowed to settle, then separated, washed and dried. The final product which has a white colour and a soft delicate structure is cut into slices or slabs. The protein content of the preparation varies from 6 to 17 per cent depending on the moisture content. The fresh curd does not keep well; drying and refrigeration prolong storage life. In China and Japan, the curd is widely used as a food for young children. Soyabean curd may be fermented to produce cheese-like products.

 

 

v   Soyabean milk:

 

Soyabean milk is prepared by grinding soaked beans in a stream of water to obtain an emulsion. The emulsion is cooked for 20 min. when margarine, suger, salt, lime and malt are added. The cooked product is then homogenized or emulsified and it may be used fresh or spray-dried. When the milk is prepared to conform to a satisfactory formula, it is very good for infant feeding, it is very good for infant feeding, particularly for those who are allergic to cow milk, and also is a boon for persons who, because of an enzyme deficiency, are unable to digest cow milk. Since it contains less sodium than cow milk is better for persons with high blood pressure.

 

Proteins are also extracted from soyabean in other ways. The seeds are defatted by mechanical processes and the oil remaining in the pressed cake is extracted by solvents. The material is than heated under controlled conditions to eliminate the bitter principles and enzymes interfering with digestion or causing rancidity. The product thus obtained is very rich in protein and nutritionally valuable.

 

 

 

Fermented Products Of Soyabean

 

Some fermented product of soyabean  are soya sauce,soysbean paste, tempe and  natto.

Their methods of prepration are given below:

 

v   Soya sauce:

Soya sauce is prepared in a variety of forms and is produced from a long and complex fermentation with various fungi and bacteria. Soyabeans are cooked for 4 to 6 hours and cooled. They are then mixed with an equal quantity of roasted ground wheat and the mixture, under suitable conditions, is seeded with Aspergillus oryzae. After the initial fermentation, salt is added and the product is matured for 6 months to 3 years when further fermentation occurs. When “ripening” is complete, the product is strained. Soya sauce thus obtained contains 67 per cent moisture and 5 to 6 per cent protein.

 

v   Soyabean paste (miso):

 

Soyabean paste is mostly a Japanese product. The fermenting agent, as in soya sauce, is Aspergillus oryzae. The inrdients are cooked soyabean and steamed rice or barley, and the mixture is fermented from 2 weeks to years. Miso may be white or dark. White miso is prodcuced by the fermentation of a mixture containing a high proportion of rice or barley and the fermentation is complete in two weeks. Dark miso results from a mixture with a high proportion of bean and fermentation take of fermentation is controlled by the addition of salt. The product sontains 10 per cent protein and  has a paste-like consistency. It is used in the preparation of soups or served with rice and other foods as dressings or a side dish.

 

 

v   Tempe:

 

Tempe is an Indonesian product. The fermenting agent is the fungus Rhizopus oryzae. The fungur is added to cooked and mashed soyabean, and is allowed to incubate for 24 hours during which time the mold penetrates the mash. Then the ferment is exposed to air and the tempe is ready for consumption. The fermented product contains 25 per cent or about half of the original protein content of the beans. The other half of the protein is broken down to amino acids which are readily assimilable. Tempe has a strong smell but it is a highly nutritious product.

 

 

 

v   Natto:

 

Natto is a Japanese product similar to Tempe. The fermenting agent is Bacillus subtilis. The cooked soft beans are inoculated with the bacterium and the fermentation is complete in 20 hours. The finished product is grey in colour, has a mushy flavour and rather poor keeping qualities. It is eaten with rice.

 

 

 

v   Hamanatto:

 

 Hamanatto is a Korean product. The fermentation in this case Is brought about by fungus. Soaked and steamed beans are impregnated with the mold and when the funfus cobers the bean, it is dried in the sun. the dry preparation is treated with salt water and allowed to ferment for another 3 to 12 months. It is again sun dried, and then is ready for consumption.

 

Conclusion

The impact of scientific advances in raising food-grain production levels and building buffer stocks could in future years be diluted by agro-climatic uncertainties and population growth. Accordingly, efforts have been intensified to develop sturdy varieties capable of withstanding adverse conditions, resisting infestation, and giving high per hectare yields.Research and development in post-harvest conservation of food grains have begun to provide a fund of information on physico-chemical characteristics that influence milling yields, cooking behaviour, and sensory qualities. Inherent crack-resistant feature of paddy for better milling yields and low breakage of rice, the influence of carbohydrate make-up and starch characteristics on cooking qualities and digestibility of rice and millets, imbalances in amino acid profiles causing nutritional deficiencies like pellagra, and hard texture coupled with a wrinkled surface in grain as a deterrent against pest infestation, are some specifics that merit consideration in breeding programmes.

Commendable advances in breeding, post-harvest conservation and nutrition have been made, but only through isolated efforts. Technologies and equipment have also been developed to process varieties under commercial cultivation, but may not cope with the diversities in physico-chemical characteristics of different food-grain varieties. Constant interaction among breeders, post-harvest technologists, nutritionists, and extension specialists is necessary to integrate the developments in various disciplines and evolve a systems approach that will result in raised production levels and optimal utilization without sacrifice of nutritional or sensory qualities.

While the evolution of varieties characterized by high productivity and disease resistance will continue to have a high place in breeding programmes, genetic translation of such desirable attributes as milling yield, cooking quality, acceptability, nutritive value, and post-harvest infestation is a challenge to the scientific community.

Co-ordination between the areas of agriculture, food technology, and nutrition needs to be reflected in practice (and not just as policy) in the evolution of food-grain varieties possessing the best possible attributes of production, utilization, and nutrition. Such interaction has a very crucial role to play in the food system.

 

References

 

 

 

 

Ø     www.google.com

Ø     www.altavista.com

Ø     www.agriculture.com

Ø    Addy, B L and Thomas, D.

Ø    aukemahm@ms.umanitoba.ca

Ø    aukemahm@ms.umanitoba.ca

Ø    betat@ms.umanitoba.ca

Ø    birdp@ms.umanitoba.ca

Ø    blankg@ms.umanitoba.ca

Ø    agcomm@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Ø    gflasker@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Ø    tjirik@ndsuext.nodak.edu

Ø    Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry

Ø    International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics

Ø    Food facts and principles(N.Shakuntala Manay & M.Shadaksharaswamy)