The Neolithic culture is unique in the sense that it represents the full transition from hunting and gathering to food-producing economy. In general the Neolithic culture in India can be dated between 2500-700 BC. Based on the regional variations, six Neolithic zones are identified in India.
1. Pakistan covering Baluchistan, Swat and the Upper Sindh valley;
2. North Western region covering Kashmir;
3. Eastern covering Assam, Chittagong and the sub-Himalayan regions including Darjeeling;
4. The Chota Nagpur Plateau including Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West Bengal;
5. Mid-Eastern covering district Saran in Bihar and
6. Southern covering peninsular India.
ORIGIN OF THE NEOLITHIC:
There are two theories regarding the origin of the Neolithic culture. The first is the dispersal from West Asia, postulated on the strength of similarity of the ceramic tradition of Shah Tepe and other West Asian sites, from where a group of people migrated to South India, picking up enroute the Bos indicus (Ox, cow) from the Indus people and other Chalcolithic traits. The second is the independent origin with Bellary as the nuclear region for its dispersal. But, at present the origin of this culture is still a moot question.
SETTLEMENT PATTERN:
Most of the Neolithic sites are located at the foot of the hills or on top of low hillocks, overlooking plain valleys below. There are also instances of valley and plain-land sites. After selection of the site the area was leveled using earth and stones.
HOUSES:
Most of the houses are built on circular plan though Nagarjunakonda in late phase yielded rectangular plants. The houses are circular huts built on a series of bamboo posts with a conical roof of perishable material like thatch grass or reed. The floors were first leveled flat with boulders and ashy earth. Subsequently the floors had a course of regular spreading of rubble or stone chips leveled with a thin layer of ashy, earth or sometimes plastered with lime or mud. Walls were of wattle and split bamboo screen plastered with mud. The houses had a hearth in a corner, sometimes only two stones juxtaposed.
Nagarjunakonda, Gandluru and Piyampalli (N. Arcot dt.) have yielded evidence of dwelling pits. Of this the Paiyampalli evidence is considerable. Here, the pits were of varying depths, cut into the natural soil, roughly oval or rectangular and oriented to the cardinal points.
They either were divided into two parts by a row of stones, or had a ramped approach in the larger pits. They had slab flooring or rammed earth. Postholes along the periphery suggest thatched roof.
In Kashmir valley, the Neolithic people of phase-I lived in circular, oval, rectangular or squarish pits cut into the natural loess or soft stone. The walls of the pits were plastered with the same material. One of the largest pits measures 2.74 M at the top and 4.75 M at the bottom in diameter and had a depth of 3.96 M. Thus these dwelling pits are ‘bottle’ shaped. Landing steps are also arranged for deep pits. All along the periphery, at the top, post-holes are found, indicating some sort of superstructure of perishable material. From the discovery of birth in one such pits it may be concluded that birch was used for roofing material. Hearths were noticed inside the pits, suggesting that cooking was take-up inside the pits. Out side the pits, but in the covered area also the hearths and storage pits were discovered leading to the surmise that during the warmer periods the pit-dwellers came out of their underground refuge to live on the surface of the earth. When two pits are close by, they are provided with inter-connecting corridor.
TOOLS AND WEAPONS:
The Neolithic people started the new tradition of polishing the stone tools. The stone was first brought into the required shape and size by various chipping techniques. Then it is given some finish by pecking with a pointed stone. Then the tool is grounded in stone cavities to bring a sharp cutting edge. Finally, the tools are polished on hide, wood or bark for smooth finish. The types of tools found in this period are axes, adzes, shoe-lost celts, long weeding hoes, picks with single or double working ends, chisels, axe-cum hammers, microliths, etc. Bone tools are also reported from some parts of Karnataka.
Bone tools are more prominent in Kashmir Neolithic sites. They are highly polished with sharp working edges. They may be identified as short daggers, points, awls, antimony rods, polishers or scrapers, chisels, needle with eye, serrated tools, harpoons, etc. Apart from the other stone tools, the Kashmir sites also have yielded perforated stone harvesters.
POTTERY:
In the early phase of the Neolithic the pottery was entirely hand made. But in the later phases, we start getting wheel made pottery. Burnished grey ware is the speciality of the Neolithic period. The surface treatment consists of burnishing, slip and roughening or rusticating. Some vessels bear post firing paintings in red ochre in early phase and pre-firing designs in black or violet pigments as at Hallur, Sangankallu and Tekkalkota in the later phases. The channeled and spouted bowls are found in good number in many of the sites. The pottery in general is grey and red in all variations, besides brown and buff. Terracotta head-rests are also found in the Neolithic sites.
SUBSISTENCE:
Neolithic were primarily agriculturists and domesticators of animals. Agriculture has become the main occupation of the populations, thus transforming completely from the hunter-gatherer stage to self-sufficient production stage. Evidence of horse gram, ragi, millet, green gram, etc indicate the type of food they consumed. Abundant animal bones, exhibiting cut and chop marks or in a charred condition, indicate a non-vegetarian diet including roasted meat and marrow. The domestic cattle, buffalo, fowl, goat, deer, gazelle, spotter deer, wild boar, monitor lizard, common rat, barasinga, pig, fish, mollusks were consumed. Bones of the cattle predominate. On the whole the food habits suggest 1) Rearing of large hers of cattle; 2) Practice of agriculture; 3) hunting and fishing.
The use of cattle as draft animals is evident from the development of anchylosis of the hock joint observed in the skeletal remains from Hallur.
A strange and remarkable feature of some of the Neolithic sites of Karnataka and Western Andhra Pradesh is the presence of ASH MOUNDS. These ash mounds sometimes rise to a height of about 20 feet and cover an area from ˝ and acre to 2 acres. The exact purpose of these ash mounds is intriguing. Scholars differ as to the reason for the accumulations. According to these opinions they are 1) Cattle pens regularly burnt and re-used; 2) heaps of cow dung burnt periodically; 3. accumulations of cinder from furnaces. Of all these theories, the theory assigning these heaps to cow dung accumulation seems to be more probable. Periodical burning of cow dung is reminiscent of the present day Bhogi ceremony when garlands of cow dung cakes are put in the ritual fire. Important ash mount sites are Piklihal (Karnataka, Utnur (AP), Palavoy (AP).
BURIALS:
The Neolithic people generally observed the practice of burying the dead in the habitational area or near by it. Nagarjunakonda yielded the evidence of separate cemetery from the habitat ional area. The dead are usually buried accompanied by pottery and ornaments, stone tools and even headrest. Two different modes of disposal were noticed – 1) Primary extended burials, and 2) post-excarnation burials. Infants were buried in the urns, usually in the houses.
At Burzahom in the Kashmir valley, the dead used to be buried in oval-shaped pits dug usually into the house floors. These pits are narrow at the top and broad at the bottom with a depth of about 3 meters. The sides of these pits are plastered with lime. The filling inside the pits is mostly ash, stone pieces and potsherds. Both primary and secondary burials have been noticed. The skeletal remains are laid to rest in a crouched or embryonic position. One of such skeleton is completely smeared with red ochre. Some holes are also noticed on the skull. These probably indicate their belief in resurrection. Along with the human bones, the bones of dog and goat, which were perhaps sacrificed were also found. Some times these animal bones are also treated with a coat of red ochre.
Another interesting feature of the Kashmir Neolithic sites is the ANIMAL BURIALS. Animals have been found interred in pits similar to those used for the humans. Both complete inhumations and fragmentary burials have been found. Fragmentary burials of five wild dogs and antlers of brasingha were found. All the bones show cut marks suggesting ceremonial sacrifice. Other burials contained bones of ibex, stag, dog, sheep, goat and antler.
ORNAMENTS:
Beads are the commonly encountered ornaments of these people. Beads of shell, steatite, terra cotta and silicious stones and copper and gold are reported from several sites. Copper bangles from Brahmagiri and spiral ring from T.Narsipur are the few metal ornaments found in the Neolithic sites.
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS:
The careful interment of the skeletal remains of the dead and the red ochre coating on the bones noticed at Burzahom suggest that these people had some belief in magico religious resurrection. Sacrificial killing and burying of pet animals of the deceased and ceremonial feast of animal meat is suggestive of involvement of the family or community in the ceremonies. The association of tools and weapons with the skeletal remains also suggest their belief in life after death. The presence of separate burials for dog and wolf probably suggest their belief in totems.
NEOLITHIC ART:
There is very meager evidence of Neolithic art. There are some paintings and bruishings on the rock face at Piklihal, Benkal, Bellary, etc. Few terracotta figurines of bulls and birds are found at Piklihal, Tekkalkotta and Sanganakallu. These figures are all hand-modelled and with all limbs luted, the legs of the bulls are not separated. At Burzahom a stone slab is engraved with a hunting scene. It shows a stag or deer being hunted from the front with a bow and arrow and a spear from the rear. Interestingly, the depiction contains two pictures of Sun, probably to indicate the duration of the hunt.
The Neolithic period represents the real transformation of human society from hunter-gatherer stage to self-sufficient production stage. During this period Man has become real agriculturist and pastoralist. The foundations of the present day villages could be gleaned in the Neolithic societies.
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2. H.D. Sankalia, Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan;
3. F.R. Allchin, Birth of Indian Civilization in India and Pakistan.
4. K.N. Dikshit (Ed.) New Perspectives in Indian Archaeology since Independence.