drawing

Drawing in Period

A Little bit of History and Technique

by Slaine ni Chiarain

mary_m_haselbauer@yahoo.com Mary M. Haselbauer

The History of Drawing

For the purpose of this discussion, drawing is roughly defined as rendering the shape and form of an object on a surface mainly through line. It can include some shading and highlights but not color. In both ancient Greece and Rome the same word was for drawing and painting so there's no way to know the difference. Pliny describes artists learning to draw by tracing the shadows on the wall. (Rowland, 26-27.) There are many Renaissance drawing from 1450 onward and some from between 1350 and 1450 but only a handful from before that time. Obviously, people where drawing but their preliminary sketches were done on the wall or page and then covered by paint. Some may have been done on wax tablets. (Scheller, 1-2.)

The early medieval draftsman was a monk in a scriptorium. Everything was preplanned and composed because "proportions based on divine cannon were more beautiful than accidents of nature." (Kenin, 44.) One of the earliest examples of period drawing is the Carolingian era Utrecht Psalter. (Fig. 1). Based on classical models, energetic pen and ink drawings illustrate the Psalms. (Rowland, 44.) Color washes are used here and there but it is the ink drawings that convey the story. In Romanesque drawings "one finds firm, smooth lines indicating clearly and precisely the boundaries of color and the dynamism of movement." Its figures are very conventionalized and hard to attribute to a specific artist because they all look the same.(Kenin, 45.)

One reason for the similarities between early medieval manuscripts is the use of pattern books. Pattern books are collections of images used by a monastic scriptorium or by a secular workshop. Most pattern books start out as a portfolio of loose sheets of parchment (Scheller, 2.) These pattern books grows in an unorganized fashion in different hands over generations (Scheller, 11.) The contents are mostly human figures and animals and are presented as elements to be fit in compositions. Notes relating to color and other features are scribbled in around the figures (Scheller, 7.)

While various pages from earlier pattern books survive, the first full book is one attributed to Ademar de Chabannes, a monk of Limoges in France. (Fig. 2) The pages are made up of sheets of vellum of various sizes and quality and seem to have been assembled for his own use (rather than for a workshop) (Scheller, 53.) The hands on the figures are very large because each gesture has symbolic meaning. This was much more important to the artist than drawing hands that actually look like hands (Scheller, 32.)

One of the most famous pattern books was made by Villard de Honnecourt between 1330 and 1335. He was a master-mason who traveled all over Europe, working on various churches. His book began as compilation of the things he saw but grew into an instructional manual on how to draw (Holt, 89.)(Fig. 3)

Here you can find the figures of the Twelve Apostles seated.

Villard de Honnecourt salutes you, and implores all who will work with the aid of this

book to pray for his soul, and remember him. For in this book one may find good advice

for the great art of masonry, and the construction of carpentry: and you will find therein the

art of drawing, the elements being such as the discipline of geometry requires.

(Holt, 89. The footnotes in Holt read The selections are from the Facsimile of the Sketch-book of
Wilars de Honecort, translated and edited by R. Willis, London, 1859.)

I include his introduction because it shows how different arts were done by the same person and how geometry was part of his method. Several pages of his sketch book show how to break down figures into their geometric elements. (Fig. 4) His book also includes sketches made from classical statues, architectural designs, as well as advice on how to tame a lion. He notes that the lion was drawn from life but it looks very much like a heraldic lion. It is as though while looking at the lion he translated it into the form he was used to (Rowland, 49.)

Around 1400 the nature of pattern books changes. This is best illustrated by a "copyright infringement" case in 1398. Jacquemart de Hesdin was accused of stealing the pattern book from another artist?s chest. This was a serious offense which lead to a long running lawsuit and allegedly, a murder. (Scheller, 34.) In the past everyone copied off of everyone else but now a drawing could become the intellectual property of an artist. What ever his scruples, Jacquemart produced his own pattern book (Fig. 5) between 1380 and 1405 as well as working on some of Jean, the Duc de Berry?s most famous books of hours.

Other changes in pattern books include a wider variety of media, including lead and silverpoint, white wash or chalk for highlights, and the use of paper instead parchment. (Scheller, 8.) Another change came with the content. As you can see from Jacquemart's book, the pictures are more detailed and specific. People of different social status are indicated not by the things they hold but by their appearance (Scheller, 31.) Portraits now indicated a specific person rather than some ideal or heraldic indication of an individual.

With the rise of portrait painting the artist relied more and more on detailed prepatory sketches which were presented to the client for their approval. However, the drawing was sometimes all the customer wanted so there was not always a distinction between preparatory and presentation drawings. The rich and famous might collect albums of drawings of other rich and famous people. (Campbell, 61-62.) From early 16th century France survive albums of drawn portraits with flaps of paper over the names of the subjects for the purpose of a guessing game. (Campbell, 205.)

Jean Clouet's portrait of Francis, Dauphin of France is typical of preparatory portrait drawings from the 15th and 16th century. (Fig. 6) The face is very detailed but the clothes are sketched in with the names of colors written out. The original sketch is done in silverpoint and reinforced with charcoal (Adhemar, x-xi.) Another good example of a preparatory drawing is Hans Holbein the Younger's group portrait of Sir Thomas More and his Family. (Fig. 7) The lines are wonderfully clear and precise. The changes that More and Holbein wished to make are scribbled in around the figures (Campbell, 143.)

Much has been written about the notebooks of Leonardo Da Vinci. They contain preparatory sketches for his paintings, things he saw, as well as his scientific designs. I've only include one page from a notebook to show how he worked out ideas and let things overlap. (Fig. 8) This is very different from Medieval pattern books even if he sometimes used it that way. (Castelfranca, 3.) He is not thinking in term of elements to slip into a framework but of whole compositions.

The reasons for drawing used changed over the course of our period. In the early Middle Ages the emphases was on the survival of classical models. This accounts for the vigorous drawing in the Utrecht Psalter and it?s similarities to Roman Wall Painting. With Romanesque and early Gothic drawings the purpose has shifted to getting it "right". The higher abstract ideals are preserved in the repetition provided by model books. By the Renaissance, the modelbooks are more like the modern sketchbook and are used for experimental drawings as well as preparations for other works such as paintings.

As a scribe, there are many ways to make a modelbook of your own. Most of us gather books and photocopies around ourselves at an alarming rate. I used to carry a sketch book with me to court to and Baronaial meetings to keep myself from getting bored. I?ve been able to use a few of these sketches on scrolls. The materials do not have to be complex. A sketchbook from Borders and a pencil are much more period for use in court than a camera. To be more period you could use watercolor paper made with a high rag content which is what period paper is made from.

A pencil would work but silverpoint is wonderful to work with. They sell silverpoint styli at art stores for lots of money but I made one from an inch of silver wire from a friend who makes jewelry and 6 inches of wooden dowel. Use an emeryboard to round out the tip and it will last for years. Silverpoint will mark on paper or vellum but works better if the surface has been treated to give it more tooth. Vellum prepared for painting should be fine for silver point but paper needs a thin layer of gesso. Period artists added pigment to the gesso to provide a middle ground color for the drawing. A drawing with silverpoint is built up with many fine lines which will darken over time as the silver tarnishes. You can also strengthen your lines with charcoal or ink. Period drawing charcoal was made by bundling a bunch of twig together in a ceramic lidded dish placed in the coals of a fire. You can buy willow twigs prepared in such a manner but they are very messy to work with.

There are several ways to transfer your drawing if you want to use it on something else. Many of the period modelbooks have small holes along the outline of the drawings. A mall cloth bag of charcoal powder was "pounced" over the holes, transfering the outline to another surface. Another method is using tracing paper. Cennini?s The Craftsman's Handbook contains three different methods for making tracing vellum.

Bibliography

Adhemar, Jean. French Drawing of the XVI Century. editor Ed. Marmod-Lausanne. New York: Vanguard Press, 1955

Brugnoli, Maria Vittoria. Drawings by Michelangelo. trans. Helen and David Friedman. New York: Dover, 1969.

Campbell, Lorne. Renaissance Portraits: European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries.
New Haven and London: Yale, 1990

Castelfranco, Giorgio. Drawings by Leonardo da Vinci. trans. Florence H. Phillips. New York: Dover, 1966.

Cennini, Cennio D'Andrea. The Craftsman's Handbook. trans. Daniel V. Thompson, Jr. New York: Dover 1960.

Holt, Elizabeth Gilmore, editor. A Documentary History of Art. Vol I New York: Doubleday, 1957.

Kenin, Richard. The Art of Drawing: from the Dawn of History to the era of the Impressionists. New York: Paddington Press, 1974.

Munz, Ludwig. Bruegel: the Drawings. trans. Luke Herrmann. London: Phaidon Press, 1961.

Rowland. Benjamin. Cave to Renaissance. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co., 1965.

Scheller,R.W., A Survey of Medieval Model Books, Haarlen: De Erven F. Bohn, 1963.

Thompson, Daniel V. The Material and Techniques of Medieval Painting. New York: 1956.

Illustrations

1. Utrecht Psalter, ca.816-35 . pen and ink on parchment 12.5 x 10 inches. Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteite

2. Ademar de Chabannes. Illustrations from Prudentius ms., ca. 1025 . pen and ink on parchment. 8 1/3 x 5 � inches, University Library, Leiden.

3-4. Villard de Honnecourt. Pages from a Model Book. ca. 1230 to 1240. pen and ink over lead-point on parchment. 9.5 x 6.5 inches. Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

5. Jacquemaet de Hesdin. Charles VI first beholds Isabeau of Bavaria, and a mysterous male couple. ca. 1390. silverpoint on boxwood panels. 5 x 6 � inches. Pierpont Morgan Library, New York.

6. Jean Clouet. Francis, Dauphin of France. ca.1523. black and red chalk on paper. 10.5 x 7 inches. Musee Conde, Chantilly

7. Hans Holbein the Younger. Sir Thomas More and his Family. ca. 1528. pen, brush, and ink over chalk on paper. 15.25 x 20.5 inches. Offentliche Kunstsammlung, Basel.

8. Leonardo de Vinci.Diverse figures and a sketch for a "Madonna with the Christ Child." about 1475, pen and ink. Windsor Castle