2. The goals of psychology:  Why do we study psychology?  

The science of psychology has four main goals:

• Describe: objective observation and precise description of behavior (What happens?)
• Understand: What are the causes of behavior (Why does it happen?)
• Predict: can forecast behavior, given set of specific conditions (When or how often, under which circumstances, will it do that again?) Now psychology is getting useful….But, often, answers are in terms of percentages. (Example: In a hot classroom right after lunch, 65% of the students will have a hard time staying awake! Why isn't it true for the other 35%?    Will power? Interest in the subject? Caffeine?)
• Control: control environment or conditions (NOT individuals’ minds) in order to influence behavior in predictable ways. (What conditions affect the behavior?) Science not often a set of ‘yes/no’ answers, and individuals have free will, personal idiosyncrasies, unique abilities and circumstances. (So, if I turn the temperature down in the classroom after lunch, I may decrease the percentage of students who get sleepy, but I can’t control whether any one person will stay awake or not!).

The steps to using the scientific method of researching a question about behavior consist of : 

• Observation: careful recording of the facts and events of interest, objective description.
• Defining the problem: what is the question you are trying to answer?
   What does previous research and current theory have to say about this problem?
• Proposing a hypothesis (educated guess): what are you trying to prove/disprove?  (Define hypothesis in operational  terms, so that  ideas are measurable, can be tested. (We discussed how to operationalise 'road rage', see below.)
• Gathering evidence/testing the hypothesis.  Discussion: integrate own results and new information with related concepts and facts: how do the facts connect?
• Publishing results and building theory: hypothesis supported or disproved? (Negative results are important too.)  

We discussed an example of doing psychological research: 
Say you wanted to study 'Road Rage'. You have noticed that drivers  seem to act more irritably when it is hot out.  First, you research the question: what have other studies of the topic found out so far? Then, based on your observations and research, you draw up a hypothesis, an educated guess, about what happens: "As the temperature increases, drivers will be more likely to act out anger." Next, you need to make the concepts 'operational', that is, precisely defined in measurable terms which you think  the basic concepts of  heat (degrees Fahrenheit) and 'road rage', angry behavior while driving (duration of horn blowing?  Frequency of horn blowing might be one measure, but duration is more likely a valid, or accurate, measure of anger). Then, you test the hypothesis, controlling for an many extraneous factors, such not counting air conditioned cars, as possible. You analyze the results: do they prove or disprove your hypothesis? You publish the results, because, while it may prove true in Bridgeport, where high temperatures are linked to high humidity, it may not prove true in Phoenix, Arizona, where the humidity is very low, even when it is very hot outside. In other words, someone in Phoenix, doing the same experiment, might disprove the theory, as the causal factor is not heat, but humidity. (GMA video clip)

 The ethics of doing research, especially experimental research,  in psychology:

   With regard to research subjects, researchers must:

•  'Do no harm.'   Researchers in pursuit of knowledge do not have the right to do anything that causes harm, temporary or permanent, to their human subjects. Many kinds of research that do inflict harm are conducted on animals; this is a topic of controversy in terms of animal rights. (See page 26.) Currently, universities have committees that review even animal research for harm, research which causes pain or death to animals has to be justified in terms of the importance of the information to human well-being. 
• Respect human rights.  Researchers have to treat people with respect, and protect their dignity, as well as ensure their rights to privacy and confidentiality.
• Obtain informed consent. Research subjects must voluntarily agree to participate, with a full understanding of the nature of the research and of what they will be doing in the course of the research, and with the understanding that they may withdraw from the study at any time without any any negative consequences. (Threat and intimidation are not allowed in terms of coercing people to complete the study.)
• Deceptive tactics may be part of the research only if steps are taken to ensure that no negative after-effects are experienced. One tactic taken to deal with this is 'debriefing' in which the deception is explained, people are allowed to express  their feelings and question the researchers. Some studies may involve some aspects of deception .

Some of the issues in the ethics of doing research on animals. Sometimes the gains in terms of preventing or curing human suffering justify experimentation on animals that may involve harmful practices, but researchers still try to be as humane as possible without compromising the usefullness of their work. 

Current approaches to psychology:   
I showed a short video on various kinds of psychologists at work today., and asked you to list as many as you could as they were being shown. Be Prepared to list some for the first test. 

In review, here are some of the schools of psychological theory. Many of the historical schools of psychology have left an impact on modern psychology. While we no longer pursue the understanding of mind through introspection alone, the study of thought processes (cognition) is an important branch that stems from the early structuralist school. Today's various therapeutic approaches are deeply influenced by pschoanalytic, behavioristic, cognitive and humanistic approaches and can tailor appropriate treatments to specific kinds of problems. Some of these approaches are listed below. Functionalistic psychology, for instance, led to today's field of industrial and school psychology:, in which psychologists ask ' how do aspects of the environment in schools or at work affect human functioning, and how do humans adapt to or take advantage of various environmental influences in these settings?' The text lists (page 37- 40) many of the current specialties that psychologists work in, most of which utilize aspects of one or more of the approaches listed below. 

2. Behavioristic: especially useful in enhancing desired learning and in 'undoing' non-adaptive learned behavior patterns such a phobias. Does not provide insight into the origins of maladaptive behaviors, but is time limited and effective in treating behavioral applications.

3. Humanistic: Positive orientation concerning human motivation to 'live up to full potential' ('self-actualization). Insists on the importance of 'free will', the ability to make rational choices concerning behavior  in spite of  background, genetic and environmental influences, etc.  This approach is helpful to people striving for self-improvement and in  overcoming the limitations and influences if their inherited and environmental influences.

4. Cognitive: Strives to address/improve mental processes such as thinking, creativity, and problem solving. Makes use of the power of expectations, especially when negative thought patterns are affecting mental health. Currently an active area for research with practical applications.

5. Physiological or Biopsychological: medical/physical approach to issues of mental health (and illness), and in studying processes of the mind and inherited behavioral influences. Initially, the use of psychotropic medications had a huge impact on the lives of the mentally ill; however, medication cannot yet cure mental illness but only treats symptoms.   Currently, new understanding of the biology and chemistry of the brain is leading to techniques which may someday lead to cures for mental illness and treatment for  deficits in the brain, Also, this field contributes to our understanding of mind-body interactions and how they contribute to mental and physical health,  making this one of the 'hottest' areas for research and clinical application.

6. Sociocultural: (the Diversity perspective) how do culture and social environments influence our behaviors and thinking processes? While social psychology, the study of how we are influenced by social pressures, has been a focus of psychological study for along time, today's increasing sensitivity to cultural diversity has pushed us to recognize the limitations of  psychology as largely shaped and practiced by white males from developed countries. Currently there is a great deal of interest in understanding how  sex and gender, age, socioeconomic status, culture and ethnicity affect psychology.

When psychologists use more than one perspective in their approach to studying psychology, their approach is said to be 'eclectic'

• "Truths" or "facts" must be empirically tested to be accepted.  Only beliefs can be accepted on faith alone; all other statements must be supported by evidence.
• The quality of the evidence for verifying facts or truth must be considered. (Compare, for example, the quality of evidence given by someone proven to lie under oath, or who is prone to exaggerate facts, compared with the reports of individuals noted for their careful observations and integrity of character.) 
• How do you evaluate the researcher's conclusions? Are their alternative explanations that were not considered?
• You also have to consider the source's motives in reporting the information. (As the recent lawsuits have shown, tobacco companies could not be trusted in thoroughly reporting on the incidence of cancer among smokers.) 
• Just because someone is an expert in their field doesn't mean they have access to the final word: what is the evidence for what they claim to be true? What is the quality of their evidence? How valid were the measures? What was the sample size and how were the subjects selected? Was there a control group? Were their studies free of experimental or experimenter biases? Are the statistics accurately reported? Are they descriptive or predictive? How likely is it that what is reported occurred by chance alone?
• Critical thinkers have open minds: even when they have been absolutely convinced of the 'truth' of a matter, they are always willing to consider new evidence and reconsider their conclusions. For instance, the textbook implies that 'folk wisdom' is totally useless. Is this really true?