The went over aspects of the first test and all of the first part of Test #2.

Second part of Test #2: you were to answer only one of the following questions, but need to study/know the answers to all four for the final exam:

1. Discuss the genetics of sickle cell anemia: Why does this deadly disease persist in the gene pool? If a child inherits two (matching) genes for sickle cell, one from the mother and one from the father, the result is sickle cell anemia, which is a crippling and ultimately deadly disorder of the red blood cells. However, if the child inherits only one sickle cell gene and the other is normal, they are protected from the mosquito-born disease of malaria, which is also deadly. A child with no sickle gene is vulnerable to malaria, which is endemic in the tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Thus the presence of this gene in the gene pool in these areas of the world is adaptive. 
2. Discuss the importance of the cultural context of the family into which a baby is born. The form and function of 'family' is defined by the culture in which it exists (example: extended vs. nuclear family structure), and the conditions for childrearing are more supportive in some cultures than others (examples: universal health care, paid parental leave, etc). Also, subcultures and community/neighborhood influences affect families and chidlrearing in those families.
3. Discuss the effects of smoking on the growth and development of the fetus. See page 117.
4. Childbirth is a natural process. What does the book mean by 'natural' childbirth. Describe. The book also calls 'natural' childbirth 'prepared' childbirth. See page 140.

Canalization: the tendency for development to continue in the direction in which it has begun and to become harder and harder to change as development progresses. Genetics predetermine the likely direction of growth and development, but environmental influences can alter its direction, especially in the early stages.

Pre-term vs. "small for date" infants: While the pre-term infant has not had the benefit of the full term to complete pre-birth development and does face a number of problems, he/she is not as at risk of death or developmental difficulties as a full-term infant who has a low birth weight. The low birth weight of the preterm infant may well be 'normal' for that point in the pregnancy, whereas the low-birth weight of a full-term infant indicates that something has been wrong during the pregnancy. In fact, the infants at greatest risk are those that are not only pre-term but low weight compared with the size of the normal fetus at that stage of pregnancy.

The effects of pregnancy and birth on subsequent parenting: a difficult pregnancy, a preterm infant to care for, a cesarean delivery, etc. all contribute to the stress in the family which can interfere with a smooth transition to parenting the newborn.

We discussed the appearance of the newborn: bright pink, or even blue at first if deprived of oxygen, wrinkled skin, sometime with vernix and lanugo , large head/small body and folded limbs. Eyes often swollen from pressures of birth, and head often 'molded', elongated, or even asymmetrical from pressures of the birth canal. Within a short period, head regains proper shape and infant becomes stronger, more filled-out looking. The round face with large forehead and big eyes has an innate appeal (It's no accident that we try to make eyes look larger with the use of makeup..

Next we talked about the Apgar Scale. At birth, it is necessary to have a quick and easy way to assess the health of the newborn in order to determine whether medical intervention is needed. The Apgar scale  is used to assess the infant’s physical condition on 5 criteria, (heart rate, breathing, reflexes, muscle tone and skin color) each of which is rated from 0 to 2.    A score of 7 or better is good, the infant is not at risk. A score of 4 to6 indicates some assistance is needed, and a score of 3 or lower indicates serious trouble that requires immediate emergency interventions if the infant is to survive. 
Two Apgar ratings are given, at 1 and 5 minutes after birth, since some babies have trouble adjusting at first but do quite well after a few minutes.

Last, we talked about the 'precious moments after birth', as the book puts it. While many animal species need close contact immediately after birth in order for the mother to accept and care for the infant animal, research shows that humans do not require such contact in order for this bonding to occur. While close contact right after birth may help establish good parent-child relationships and give parenting a good start, if this is not possible, such a bond can be established at a later time. There is no evidence that the parent's competence or the infants' emotional health is affected. Many adoptive parents become deeply attached (bonded) to their non-biological children; it is the acts of caring for the child that build this bond. 

     "Babies with Down 's Syndrome typically learn how to stand upright and walk a year later than  other children. But Dale Ulrich of the University of Michigan has found that  by getting the infants to work out on a treadmill eight minutes a day, five days a week for six to eight months, he can speed up the process by as much as four months.

    "Ulrich wants to do a lot more than just get the babies up an d around: he's hoping to improve their cognitive abilities . Research has shown that learning to walk helps stimulate the brain. Once children start toddling around, says Ulrich, it's easier for them to interact with their environment, which speeds up learning. Treadmill-trained babies also walk with greater strength and coordination.

    "This is good news because children with Down's Syndrome generally have to work harder to control their muscles, says Ulrich (who also plans to try the treadmill on infants with cerebral palsy)/ The babies begin training as soon as they can sit upright. At first, they take just a few steps while their parents hold them up . 'She'll do a little double step and the let her feet dangle,' said Randy Russo, when his daughter, Isabelle, was ten months. Two months later, Russo is delighted with his daughter's progress. 'She is doing exceptionally well,' he says. 'She has a little push-toy that she holds onto as she walks around.'

    Ulrich is following the children's progress to see whether walking earlier does in fact improve their cognitive ability. He is very optimistic. 'We can already improve the neural pathways that support walking.' he says. 'The baby brain can do a lot when put in the right context - and we believe the treadmill is that context.'  (reported by Annette Foglino)