Electrical conduction :
Although electricity is one of the oldest and most
extensively studied branches of physics several misconceptions still exist as
to exactly how electrical energy is conducted through a conductor. Even fairly
eminent Physicists when asked this question will state that electrical energy
is conveyed by electrons by a process resembling pushing ping pong balls into a
tube already filled with ping pong balls. When one considers that the atom is
mostly made up of empty space and that electrons within the atom are separated
by more than a hundred thousand times their diameter , this explanation is
hardly satisfying.
It is time to put to
the test the issue of how the flow of electrical energy would be
affected in an electrical conductor using photons as the agents of
electrical energy . The best sequence
in which to undertake such an exercise is to start with proven phenomenon and
to extrapolate from there . It is known
that electrons when excited
emit photons , let us suppose then that by some means ( a battery or an
electric generator etc., ) electrons
are excited with an energy that causes them
to emit conduction photons , which results in a difference of potential
, these photons travel through the conductor and are absorbed either by a free
electron or by an electron in the outer
orbit of the atom and are immediately re-emitted , thus conduction
photons travel through the conductor from atom to atom or electron to electron
arriving at their destination at the speed of light and there giving up their
energy. Free electrons which
emit electrons are in a quandary
, they are in the middle of nowhere travelling in the vast interstitial spaces in the atom lattices
of the conductor , they have an urgent
need to re-absorb the energy they have given up , the emitted photons are in a
comparable situation since they need to be absorbed by electrons of similar
energy , thus conduction photons are
dedicated to the electrons which have emitted them , they therefore travel
through the conductor and if not absorbed , leave the conductor at the positive
pole , link up with other photons ( “Virtual” photons ) to form chains or lines
of linked photons through which the
energy of the real photons travel at
the speed of light and re-enter
the conductor at the negative pole to
be re-absorbed by another free electron , or by an electron in the outer orbit.
The flow of electrical energy in an electrical conductor might therefore be
thought of as a continuous process of emission and absorption of conduction
photons. With the conduction photons travelling through the conductor
exiting it through the positive end linking up with other photons to make chains
or lines and re-entering the conductor at the negative end. As a corollary to
this it follows that the chains or lines of photons outside the conductor must
be “virtual” photons (i.e one true photon for each composite photon
wave-length.) See Fig 4.
Fig 4.
The next issue to attempt to understand is the process by which conduction photons carry electrical energy. It has been explained that photons , because of their solenoidal structure , can link to or connect up with other photons and that this linkage has two orientations , in series and in parallel. It has been established that the energy of a photon is dependent on its frequency or wave-length by the relation e = hc/λ and e = hf . According to the “Aumic” Theory proposed here , a photon cannot have a wave-length of greater than 8.5 x 10 -7 m. The longer wavelengths are therefore composite waves consisting of strings of linked up or connected photons , which since their energy is shared have a progressively lower energy depending upon the wave length of the composite wave, i.e longer wave-lengths would have less energy. This simple model of the structure of the photon solves all the problems related to photons and their wave-lengths and frequencies , they are as easily linked together as Lego blocks.
Just as “conduction “ photons link together with “virtual” photons to form composite waves responsible for longer wave-lengths such as radio waves , it must be assumed that all other photon wave lengths are also the result of such linking up. In order for this hypotheses to work it must be assumed that there exists a fundamental photon wave-length (i.e a photon possessing the smallest wave length and highest frequency and energy. ) it is possible that this fundamental photon wave-length is about 10 -12 m. Photon frequencies higher than this are not related to the atom but to nuclear forces. Thus all other photons are made up of additives of the fundamental photon wave length. Such a system would considerably simplify the mechanism by which photons can exist in such vast variations ranging as has been said before from gamma rays with wave lengths of 10 -12 m. to radio waves of 10 5 m and more. The energy of the photon emitted by an electron would therefore be a reciprocal of the number of fundamental photon wave lengths of which it is composed. According to the model of the photon put forward in this thesis it is suggested that photons are packets of energy , which are held together by the localized distribution of this energy in a definite form , each distribution being representative of a specific or particular photon energy.
This
raises an interesting question , it has been observed experimentally , that a
photon can never exceed the energy of
the electron which gives rise to it. The energy equivalence of an
electron turns out to be approx. 0.511
MeV . Yet gamma rays emitted during the spontaneous transformation of radio-active atoms and found in cosmic
radiation are frequently found to have energies ranging from 0.02 to 2.6 MeV ,
which is four times the times the energy corresponding to the rest mass of the
electron (0.511 MeV ) . Since these
energies far exceed the energy equivalence of electrons it follows that photon
energies in the MeV range are related to nuclear binding forces and not with
the electron , although the physical structure of these “nuclear”
photons might resemble the structure of the electron photon. At energy levels
corresponding to MeV , the energy of
the “nuclear” photon is large enough to undergo transformations into
matter. A gamma ray passing near to the
atomic nucleus can in these circumstances , give rise to an electron and a
positron and the same transformations can also take place in reverse (i.e., matter
undergoing transformations into gamma rays ) as has been shown to happen in radioactive atoms. These high energy photons are related to the
nucleus and not to the electron.
Energetic photons , such as those of visible light , emitted by
electrons have enough energy to leave the atom individually , once emitted they
leave the vicinity of the electron at the speed of light and do not stop until
they are absorbed , however the method of propagation of visible photons is
identical to the manner in which electromagnetic radiation of lower frequency
such as radio waves , propagate.. Lower energy photons such as those in
radio-waves are linked to the electrons that have emitted them by the Paul
Exclusion Principle and thus stay linked to the conductor , forming lines of
force around it. I have termed these lower energy photons as conduction
photons.
It has
been suggested that conduction photons are emitted and absorbed not only
by
electrons in the outer orbits of the atom but also by
free electrons , this type of interaction is at present expressly forbidden by
the Pauli exclusion principle , for the reason that most free electrons do
not possess enough energy (always
excepting electrons in lasers ) , or
because they lack the inertial stability such as is found in attached electrons
, which would enable them to cope with
the forces of recoil entailed by the
emission of a photon . This is the situation of a free electron in an
electrical conductor , according to quantum physics as it is at present
understood ,it is forbidden to emit or
absorb a photon by the conservation laws.
The Pauli
Exclusion Principle As Applied To Free Electrons:
The Pauli Excluson Priciple as
applied to free electrons can be mathematically stated as follows :-
A free electron
has the
form :
in this case the integral appears as follows :
hence the probability of a free electron emitting a photon
would be non-zero only provided that :
(momentum
conservation.)
At the same time the following condition must be observed :
(energy conservation
)
For a free non-relativistic
electron this means :
so that
energy conservation in this case can be represented as :
which is incompatible with the equation for momentum conservation :
It is thus concluded that a free electron cannot emit
photons. A similar result is obtained
for absorption.
For both conservation laws (energy and momentum ) to be observed simultaneously , the participation of a third body is required , which the surplus momentum is transmitted to. Yet because the energy of “conduction photons” is comparatively low approx 10-19 Joules and the time taken for the photon to travel around the conductor and be re-absorbed is short . The possibility of such interactions taking place are good:
The
Heisenberg Uncertainty Relationship as applicable to “Aumic” Theory and
Electromagnetic radiation:
Using the relationship : 
it is possible to see
that the distance applicable in a composite wave-length is that of the
conduction photon wave-length which is equal to
8 x10 –7 m. Which gives a time of 3 x 10 –16 s.
for the interaction to take place meaning that the travel of energy through a
composite-wave comes within the purview of the relationship quoted above (
) , since only the
energy of one real conduction photon is distributed throughout the
length of the ‘composite’ wave-length. This means that it is
possible for the electromagnetic field to be fully made up of “virtual”
photons whose sole purpose is to pass on the energy of the real photons.
Further , if we consider the physical implications of the propagation of “conduction photons
“ it is apparent that the free electron would have very little say in the
matter , the physical dimensions of the conduction photon would make collision
and absorption with a free electron a more likely occurrence than not !
If this line of reasoning is followed through , it shows that conduction photons in this situation are even more highly energy specific (i.e follow the restricted energy level principle rather more than less rigidly ) than those of the higher frequency photons such as visible light . For instance an emitted photon of this energy has to (is compelled ) to return to an electron which is missing exactly the same amount of energy , just as the electron in its turn has to absorb a photon of the same specific energy , hence the presence of loops of electromagnetic radiation surrounding an electrical conductor , once this linkage is broken (as for instance by a reversal of current polarity ) the chain of linked electrons moves away from the source (like all photons ) at the speed of light , when they are detected (absorbed) they (like all photons ) preserve their initial identity.
The remarkable thing to note here is that the photons attempt to return to the electrons which are missing their particular energy level through the shortest and most direct route , which because of the electro-dynamic forces in the conductor , happens to be the negative pole of the conductor , although points along the surface of the conductor might also serve as places of entry. The photons , if not absorbed , therefore issue from the positive pole of the conductor and immediately try to make their way back to their source via the negative pole of the conductor forming the characteristic loops which we refer to as electromagnetic lines of force. Thus instead of the electromagnetic field giving rise to photons as was thought to be the case , we now realise the possibility that in fact it is the other way around and that it is photons which give rise to electromagnetic fields.
Consider also the fact that photons have no rest mass , once released they are supposed to move away from the electron that emits them at the speed of light . This being so how does one account for the fact that photons in an electromagnetic field around a wire carrying a current stay bound to the vicinity of the conductor ? According to all known principles , once emitted or otherwise formed , they should leave the vicinity of the conductor at the speed of light . Present theories either do not account for this phenomena of how or why photons stay bound to the conductor or enter into highly complicated explanations which further fragment an already fragmented theory. The second question is why when there is a change in polarity do they according to quantum mechanics suddenly change roles , start to behave like real photons assume a direction away from the conductor and move away at the speed of light ? The quantum mechanics attempt to solve this question is highly convoluted and involves a great deal of mathematical abstraction which is impossible to go into at this point.
Magnetism:
If the theory of electrical conduction as formulated above is extrapolated to the observed phenomenon of permanent Magnetism , it gives an exact match. It is possible to see that the various types of magnetic properties such as diamagnetic , paramagnetic , ferrimagnetic and ferromagnetic properties are dependent on the internal structure of the metals possessing these types of magnetic properties. In materials such as iron which has an ordered atomic structure and fewer free electrons , the electrical conduction process can settle into a rigid pattern , negating the need for outside influences in order to sustain the loops of electromagnetic energy surrounding the magnet. In other words the “conduction photons” in a permanent magnet flow through the magnet , starting at the negative ( or South pole ) and make their way at the speed of light through the body of the magnet by being emitted and absorbed by free electrons within the magnet , they exit the magnet at the Positive (or North pole ) and make their way back into the magnet through the south pole , forming continuous loops of electromagnetic energy. This is the same process that takes place in electrical conduction , with the difference that the same or almost the same free electrons are used over and over again in the process , the number of free electrons available in the magnet being enough to sustain the process but not enough to disrupt it . Since the process is self sufficient (i.e the energy of every electron is accounted for ) no electrical energy can be drawn directly from this system , as for instance by connecting a wire between the North and South poles of the magnet , although energy can be drawn form the field surrounding the magnet. This theory is more consistent than the present theory of magnetism which involves constantly flipping domains.