The Mother

"Being a mother and rearing a healthy family were the ultimate achievements for a woman in the North American Indian societies. There was no contusion about the role of a woman and very few other acceptable patterns for feminine existence. Many Indian women attained distinction as crafts-women or medical practitioners, but this in no way affected their role as bearers and raisers of children. ¹" Carolyn Niethammer writes in her book.

While some truth echoes in her thoughts so much is left out. Few would argue even in today's societies that motherhood is the most difficult of jobs. The Indian Woman for centuries as today carried out the roll with a grace many aspire to and few achieve. The skills of mothering began being taught at the earliest possible age for the Indian girl. It is a tribal responsibility that girls grow to be fine mothers.

Because the Indian puts the greatest priority on its women and children much time is taken to learn how to do these things well. Most ancient cultures and some modern Indian cultures show a matriarchal society to many varying degrees. Usually the woman owned the dwelling and all things called home. A girl child spends much of her time learning how to create, care for and establish a fine home for her future.

The girl child's training did not stop there. Depending on where the child's talents flourished she was also trained in medicine, tracking, moon ceremony, tanning, keeping a fire, leading ceremony, pottery, basket weaving, preparation of food, hunting and even weaponry and war.

Not unlike today's western woman the Indian woman wore as many different hats and mastered many skills along with rearing a fine family and keeping a good home.

How Does This Baby Begin?

While there were few women who did not know that a baby was growing within them the customs of sex and pregnancy was as varied as the people. The Apache woman ceased her sexual activity at the first signs of pregnancy to prevent injury to the baby while Hopi woman continued sex all during the pregnancy believing that continued intercourse would make the child grow. It was likened by one Hopi to irrigating a crop - if a man started to make a baby and then stopped, his wife would have a hard time.

The Kaska Indians of northwestern Canada also maintained that repeated sex during early pregnancy developed the embryo, but warned that too much indulgence would produce twins.

Among most of the tribes, however, pregnant women continued a moderate sex life until the later stages of their pregnancy, much as many women do today.

A woman's place in Plains Indian culture was an indispensable part of tribal life. The man and the woman were partners, he had his responsibilities and she had her responsibilities, and both were necessary for their survival. The lifestyle of buffalo-hunting tribes of the Great Plains revolved around the dangerous and risky male pursuits of warfare and hunting. The role of Plains Indian women was to support the hunters and warriors; a task that involved considerable labor. It is true that the life of the Indian woman was hard, but her value to the tribe was duly recognized. The woman's numerous tasks promoted tribal welfare.

The Plains Indians lived with constant exposure to the elements, to hunger and to attacks by enemy tribes. When these nomadic peoples moved their camp site, the men rode on the outside or ahead of the group ready to defend their families against any threat of attack and to look for game along the way. The women took down the tipi and packed their possessions on the horses and travois; small children rode with their mothers in a cradleboard or sometimes the cradleboards were tied firmly to the travois, older children often rode their own horses. (Before the acquisition of the horse, the women packed their belongings on the backs of dogs or on dog drawn travois.) And it was the women who unpacked and pitched the tipi and set up housekeeping at the next campsite. Apart from being a wife and mother, this strenuous work was done in addition to their daily homemaking duties of gathering firewood, cooking food, fetching water and making and repairing clothes, moccasins, tipis and manufacturing household items.

Although early Plains Indian women had no voice in tribal affairs, they ran the home and had certain rights. For one thing the women decided where their tipi was to be pitched in the camp circle, and for another, they virtually owned all of its contents, as well as the horses they packed when camp was moved. According to historical accounts, if a woman had a grievance, she was likely to speak up and stand her ground.

The primary task of early Plains women revolved around providing food for her family. The harvesting of buffalo was the responsibility of the man, but once the game was harvested, it became the property of the woman. The women of the encampment often followed the men on a buffalo hunt. They waited by their travois until the harvesting was finished and then they would rush down to start skinning and cutting up the meat. Each carcass had to be quickly attended to in order to prevent spoilage, especially during the summer months. The women, skilled in cutting the buffalo hide away from the meat, were careful not to damage the hide in the process. Before the hides cooled and became to stiff, the women quickly scraped the buffalo hides clean of fat and tissue. They wrapped the meat in fresh buffalo hides and took it back to camp on their travois. The men might help with the heaviest work such as turning the animal over, but processing the meat and tanning the hide were primarily the women's responsibility. If the hunters had to travel some distance to where the herd had migrated, the men did the butchering and carried the hide and the meat back to camp where the women waited for their return.

After they scraped the hide, the women pegged it flat to the ground or laced it to a four-sided frame that set up vertically. The hide was then put aside until the women had time to work with it. The meat was cut up for boiling or sliced into strips and dried into jerky, or pounded to make pemmican. Pemmican was a winter staple which was processed by mixing pounded meat with melted buffalo fat, marrow, pinenuts and berries.

The massive buffalo hides were either made into rawhide for tying all kinds of equipment together or they were tanned. Being an expert tanner was regarded as one of the most prized skills among women. Plains Indian women tanned each hide using a time-process depending on what the hide was going to be used for. Hides that had been tanned with the hair on were used as bedding or robes; these hides were usually harvested in the fall or winter when the hair was the thickest. The women fashioned hides with the hair removed into various articles of clothing, lodge furniture, carrying cases and tipi coverings. Buffalo hair was woven into rope or used to stuff various items such as cradleboards and headrests. Depending on the size of the tipi, it took one dozen to two dozen hides to make a tipi covering. Plains Indian women saved up tanned hides until they had enough hides to sew together to cover the tipi poles. The men furnished the hides and the poles which supported the tipi, but in terms of property the tipi was hers and she took pride in tanning and decorating the tipi covering.

The buffalo was the commissary of the Plains Indians and virtually nothing was wasted. Buffalo bones and horns were fashioned into cooking utensils and tools, even the hoofs were utilized in making glue. In truth, during the height of hunting season, even the most industrious Plains Indian woman could not keep up with her daily tasks and all the work that needed to be done to process the bufalo. It took the labor of at least two women to keep up with the amount of meat and hides one hunter provided. Usually, every wife had someone to help her - a young girl, an elderly relative, or, additional wives in those tribes that practiced polygamy.

Early European explorers and missionaries interpreted the Indian woman's role as a powerless servant in a male-dominate society. Today, many still assume that the early Native American woman was regarded as little more than a slave of her husband; a downtrodden, submissive beast of burden whose work was never done. Some researchers theorize that the social structure of the Indian culture was much more matriarchal than was observed by European historians. Early Native American societies revered women as the life-giving force to future generations. They were the foundation and the pride of Indian culture. Many songs and myths passed down from generation to generation, as the phrase, "Mother Earth" when making reference to gifts provided by nature. Because life begins with birth and mothers nourish that life, it seems fitting that numerous Indian legends tend to include women when referring to their origin.

The ultimate achievement for a woman in Native American societies is being a mother and rearing a healthy family. Even though many Indian women attained distinctions as religious practitioners, medicine women and skilled artisans in craft work, in no way did these tasks affect their role as bearers and raisers of children.

Although infant mortality was probably very high among early Native American women and many women undoubtedly died in childbirth, every precaution was used by prospective mothers to ensure safe delivery and healthy children. Early Plains Indian women relied on herbal medicines, myths and superstitions to guide them during their pregnancies. Older women in the tribe warned first-time mothers to avoid certain foods and to be careful of their personal behavior. According to Indian custom, both were believed to be the cause of a difficult delivery or defect in the unborn baby.

During labor women ususally gathered among themselves for the ritual of birth. A prospective mother was generally assisted by her female relatives or other women of her tribe who were mid-wives and had knowledge of birth customs. In some tribes, however, it was the custom for the expectant mother to leave camp and deliver her baby all alone. Generally, the Indian culture insisted that both mother and baby remain in seclusion for a specified time. The seclusion was probably a welcomed break to the new mother from her vigorous duties.

Plains Indian women relied on natural means to feed their babies. In caring for their newborn's needs, the women used materials provided by Mother Earth. One such item was dried buffalo manure. The women pounded the manure into a fine powder and used it as an absorbant to swaddle the baby in; when the child was soiled the swaddling was changed with a fresh supply of powder.

Plains Indians parents had a deep affection for their children and, for the most part, were permissive; grandparents administered the discipline. Customarily, rituals were performed to welcome the newborn member into their community. But due to the high infant mortality rate, these ceremonials were often delayed until the newborn was about one year old.

The bond between mothers and daughters was very special. However, much of the training of young girls fell to the grandmothers, who taught them to sew and cook, to tan hides, make their clothing and to fashion and decorate items. Grandmothers also instilled the tribe's moral values and traditions in their granddaughters.

Instructions on proper conduct intensified as a girl approached puberty. Her mother and grandmother would increase the amount of tasks assigned to her; tasks that would prepare her for her lifework. She no longer enjoyed the freedom to run and play games with the other children. She would be instructed to stay near her lodge and could only venture out in company.

Girls, as well as boys, had certain rites of passage into adulthood. Ceremonial rites of initiating adolescent girls into womanhood were usually performed by their grandmothers, with the assistance of their mothers. The ceremony also prepared young women to receive suitors.

The marriage of a Plains Indian woman was usually arranged by her family. Marriage was viewed as a social contact for sharing responsibilities and child rearing. It was not expected to be a marriage of love. However, Plains Indian women had the right to refuse their chosen mate, but very few probably exercised that option. If a man fell in love with a young woman, he did everything in his power to impress her family. The suitor would bring gifts and horses and leave them in front of her lodge. Then he waited for a response from her family. If the proposal was rejected, the gifts, including the horses were returned to the suitor. If the proposal was accepted, the gifts and horses were taken by the young woman's family. Marriage preparations were made by both families and the newlyweds were received into the community with a wedding ceremony and feast.

Depending upon the custom of the tribe, the couple generally lived with the bride's parents. (Plains Indians traced their descent in the maternal line and children belonged to the clan of the mother.) When enough household goods were gathered by both mothers, the bride and their relatives, the newlyweds were able to live alone. The bride's mother generally set up a new tipi for her daughter and son-in-law close to her own dwelling; in which case, a new family joined the community.

Following the path of their ancestors, early Plains Indian women passed on which characteristics to look for in utilizing plants and roots to their daughters. The women's knowledge of the vast array of wild plants, used for food and for various purposes such as pipe-smoking, dyes, incense or medicines, was part of their realm. The women obtained honor and clout through their close relationship to food. Their important contribution to the food supply provided good nutrition for their families and large quantities of food improved their social standing in the community. In many Plains Indian tribes, the women had complete control of the food supply and her status in the community depended to some extent on the manner in which women distributed their reserve of provisions. Generosity and hospitality were highly valued as requirements of sociability among the Plains Indians; they were also a necessary form of welfare. In the Indian culture, it was customary that as soon as a visitor entered one's home, food was immediately offered and a gift of food was usually given to the visitor to take home. On ceremonial occasions, the women took pride in preparing food to bring to the feast.

Early Plains Indian women lived their lives in a world of ceremony and ritual. Although each season brought different rituals and social celebrations - held in thanksgiving for the gifts nature provided - the women perceived that every part of their universe possessed the forces of creation. Daily prayers were part of the women's spiritual life. They continually prayed for blessings of good health for their families and other tribal members, for protection and for a bountiful food supply. A woman's prayers increased when her husband went on hunts and raiding expedictions, praying for success in his endeavors and for his safe return. Religion was an important facet in the lives of early Plains Indians. Spirituality gave them a deep sense of dignity and understanding for their surroundings.

Feasts were a social event for the Plains Indians with all the members of a community usually in attendance. The women made nutritious dishes for these gatherings with a variety of wild vegetables such as onions, turnips and carrots, a varied mixture of berries and nuts, and, in addition to buffalo meat, meat from elk, deer, antelope and mountain sheep were prepared and taken to the feast. Small game animals such as jack rabbits, sage chickens and pheasants were also served and some of the Plains tribes ate fish. The meat was generally added to soups and stews, roasted over an open fire or served in dried strips.

Early Plains Indian woman cooked in pits, using heated stones with the meat and vegetables wrapped in hides. Later, kettles were made utilizing the buffalo paunch. These paunches would be hung from stick frames, the food placed inside and covered with water, then heated stones dropped in to bring the water to a boil. Meat was broiled by placing it next to flames, holding it over the fire on roasting sticks or hanging the skewered chunks on a moistened rawhide strip to prevent burning through the leather.

Feasts were a time to socialize with one another. Women generally performed their cooking tasks in the company of other women, while men visited with one another and children ran about and played games.

Plains Indians took much pleasure in finery and when entire communities came together for various religious rituals and celebrations, which were a large part of their lives, they wore their best regalia. Plains Indian women took great pride in their family's appearance, especially in the regalia of their husbands. It was a measure of status within the community to be recognized for ceremonial clothing at these traditional dances and feasts.

When not doing more immediate daily tasks, the Plains Indian women spent untold hours decorating clothing and accoutrements. The women fashioned ornaments and embellished clothing with brightly colored paints, quills, pieces of bone, shells, feathers, claws and later with trade beads. The men, who were the primary beneficiaries of their wives' labor, highly respected their domestic skills. In much the same manner that warriors tallied their coups and other war deeds, women kept count of their domestic accomplishments. In many tribes, women had societies where they would gather to work on their crafts and exchange techniques and ideas. Sometimes competitions were organized among the women and winning a contest was similar to the honors won by their husbands for war deeds.

The maturing Plains Indian women devoted themselves to daily prayer with the same reverent spiritually they had practiced as younger women. The end of childbearing years marked an important passage for women in a realm of respect and distinction. The women elders were valued for their wisdom and were regarded as the keepers of tribal history. As mothers were busy with the daily tasks of gathering and preparing food, a great deal of caring for children, both boys and girls, was given to the grandmothers. The women elders instilled the ancient traditions, lore and values of their people to their grandchildren. They helped their granddaughters master the traditional skills and crafts of their tribe. The maturing Plains Indian women completed the circle of their lives by guiding new generations in the path of their ancestors.

Early Plains Indian women were industrious with a love for children and family. Their role of wife and mother was highly respected by their tribes and women were revered as the mothers of their race. In some tribes, women could also earn respect by obtaining positions of honor and power such as skilled artisans or medicine women. But primarily, women worked in partnership with their husbands to survive the elements of nature and to provide sustenance for their families.

EARLY WOMEN BOTANISTS

Plains Indian culture was one of hunters and gathers: the men did the hunting and the women did the gathering. The task of gathering and the preparation of seeds, berries and edible roots and plants belonged to the women. They continually gathered supplies of food throughout the spring, summer and fall to sustain their families, when food was scarce during the cold winter months. In some areas where tribes lived in semi-permanent villages, the women planted gardens in the early spring to supplement the wild plants they gathered around the countryside. They discovered that seeds from procured plants could be grown in their encampment and knowledge of soaking seeds to quicken germination was passed from tribe to tribe. The women started the plants indoors, then transplanted them outside when the weather permitted. In some tribes men tended the gardens, but generally women cultivated the gardens. In some communities, the women tended their gardens thoughout the summer, while other tribes waited until the gardens were established and then picked-up camp, traveling throughout the summer hunting and gathering. When they returned in the fall, the garden was harvested and the produce was added to their storage of food.

Plains Indian women supplemented their family's basic diet of buffalo meat with a variety of wild berries, which were also an essential ingredient in making pemmican. Picking season began in late spring and continued throughout the summer. The women gathered in groups to pick berries and used this time to visit with one another as they worked. Because a young woman was in the company of other women, berry-picking was one of the few times of the year a man could court a woman.

Following the path of their ancestors, early Plains Indian women passed on which characteristics to look for in utilizing plants and roots to their daughters. The women's knowledge of the vast array of wild plants, used for food and for various purposes such as pipe-smoking, dyes, incense or medicines, was part of their realm. The women obtained honor and clout through their close relationship to food. Their important contribution to the food supply provided good nutrition for their families and large quantities of food improved their social standing in the community. In many Plains Indian tribes, the women had complete control of the food supply and her status in the community depended to some extent on the manner in which women distributed their reserve of provisions. Generosity and hospitality were highly valued as requirements of sociability among the Plains Indians; they were also a necessary form of welfare. In the Indian culture, it was customary that as soon as a visitor entered one's home, food was immediately offered and a gift of food was usually given to the visitor to take home. On ceremonial occasions, the women took pride in preparing food to bring to the feast.

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