c-NAMA-14.htm

Heitsi Eibib, 'spirit sinkhole', the Wondergat near Cornellskop

PROTO-LANGUAGE PHONEMES

in IE and Nama

([Khoi]San)

by Patrick C. Ryan

The purpose of this short essay is to establish as a hypothesis that IE and Nama are both descended from a common ancestor, which, I term the Proto-Language — from the form into which it had developed by about 100K BPE.

This date is based on the estimates of Cavalli-Sforza for the separation of the peoples of Africa and the rest of the world (The Great Human Diasporas, p. 123) from the "main" branch of the people speaking the Proto-Language.

During this phase of development, the Proto-Language was passing out of the active-type morphology into a class-type morphology (G. A. Klimov).

Nama, a Hottentot language (of the family now called [Khoi]San, which includes also Bushmen languages), broke off from the main branch of the Proto-Language sometime shortly after 92,000 B.P. An excellent online resource for Nama in particular and Central KhoiSan in general is at the TOWER OF BABEL, founded by Sergei Anatolyevich Starostin, and now part of the Evolution of Human Languages project at the Santa Fe Institute.

An important new resource for Nostratic studies is the website Nostratica, instituted by Kirill Babaev, the founder of the Cybalist language discussion group at Yahoo! Groups.

At this time, the Proto-Language had developed only a few nominal compounds. The principal types involved the monosyllabic CV roots with PL ¿E, 'voice, -like'; and with PL NA, 'nose, stone, one', which provided a definite singular nuance for roots that could be interpreted collectively; e.g. from PL ME, 'tongue, converse(r)', with ¿E = ME-¿E, 'word(s)'; and with NA = ME-¿E-NA, 'word', which is found in Nama mî (miⁿ), 'to say', cognate formatively and semantically with PIE *mei-no-, 'opinion, view'.

Nama word order is consistently SOV, in which we see the earliest Proto-Language word order.

Although there has been an understandable negative reaction to linking 'race' and language notably because of the racial doctrines of the former National Socialists, responsible scholars have now begun to re-investigate the connections among genetic profiles of populations and culture and language, with the result that the basic Monogenetic Hypothesis (and with it, monogenesis) is gaining substantial credibility through the results of research by physical scientists.

The kind of solid data being generated and careful analysis cannot be "quibbled away" by the liberal ideologues who still chase the butterflies of independent language invention and "borrowing frenzy".

In the Table of Correspondence found after the listing of lexical cognates below, the column entitled PROTO-LANGUAGE shows the earliest syllables before vocalic contrasts were replaced by a contrast of glides and no glide (during the Pontic stage).

Similar tables of equivalence can and have been constructed for the Proto-Language, IE and Afrasian, Altaic, Basque, Beng (Southern Mandé), Blackfoot (Algonquian), Dravidian (incomplete), Etruscan, Hurrian-Urartian, Japanese, Mon/Hmong, Nama (present essay), Pama-Nyungan (incomplete), (Sino-)Tibetan, Sumerian, and Uralic.

It will be seen below that the reconstructed roots of Indo-European and the attested roots of Nama are related through a very regular system of phonemic correspondences with understandable semantic shifting.

TABLE
OF
PL / IE / NAMA ([Khoi]San)
CORRESPONDENCES

(#) indicates no example has yet been found; (:) indicates the vowel was originally long
: indicates an attested long vowel; *=standard reconstruction; **=reconstructed by author

For examples, see (NUMBER) in PL / IE / Nama (Khoi[San]) Lexical Comparisons below.

For 'clicks', see CLICKS and CLICK COMPARISON.

PROTO- LANGUAGE

INDO- EUROPEAN

NAMA

may be used for annotation

HV⁽¹⁾

He:

Øa⁽¹³⁾ (1)

Øa(:) (46)

Øi(:) (46)

SUMERIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE
([IE,] Sumerian and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

NEWEST CORRESPONDENCE VALUES

AFRASIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE
([IE,] Arabic and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

NEWEST CORRESPONDENCE VALUES

Ha:

HA-FHA-FA Ho:wV (47. d.)

Øa (2, 2. aa., 2. b., 2. bb., 2. c., 2. d., 2. e.)

Øa(:) (47, 47. a., 47. b., 47. e., 47. f.)

Øa(:) + u o(:) (47. c.)

Øa(:) + u u(:) (47. d.)

Ho:

Øa (3)

Øa(:) (48. a., 48. b., 48. c.)

Øu(:) (48)

¿E

HHE

He:

Øi (4 )

Øe(:) (#)

¿A

HHA

yV

¿A-¿E

e and e:

Ha:

Øi (5)

¿A-¿E

e (5. a.)

¿A-¿E

ai (5. aa.)

Øa(:) (50, 50 a., 50. b., 50. bb., 50. c.)

¿O

HHO

Ho:

Øu (6)

Øi (6)

Øo: (51)

P[?]^g E⁽⁵⁾

P[H]E

b(h)V / wV

u:⁽¹³⁾ (7)

u(:)i⁽¹³⁾ (52)

P[?]^g A⁽⁵⁾

P[H]A

b(h)V / wV

a(:) (8)

a(:) (53)

P[?]^gO⁽⁵⁾

P[H]O

b(h)V / wV

initial: ao (9)

initial: o(:) (9)

medial: bo (9)

ao(:) (54)

PHO + HHA a: (54)

P[?]FE

PF[H]E

bhV

p[h]e:

initial: oa (#)

medial: ba (32. aa.)

final: b (10)

initial:ae(:) (55)

medial: pa(:) (83. b.)

medial: pe(:) (41)

P[?]FA

PF[H]A

bhV⁽²⁾

p[h]a:

initial: oa (11)

initial: ao (11)

◊a(:) (#)

P[?]FO

PF[H]O

bhV

p[h]o:

initial: ao (12)

initial: ba + i be:(12)

final: b (26, 41)

ao(:) (57)

F[H]E

we:

a (#)

FE-¿E ga(i) (13)

final: o (39. bb.)

u(:)i (58)

medial: wi(:) (83. b.)

o(:) (#)

F[H]A

wa:

o (14)

u (14. a.)

initial: o(:)a (59)

final: u(:) (64)

F[H]O

wo:

o (15. a.)

u (15)

o(:)a (60)

u(:) (#)

T[?]E

T[H]E

da (16, 16. a.)

tsa (61)

T[?]A

T[H]A

da (17, 17 a., 17 aa., 17 b.)

ta (62)

T[?]O

T[H]O

da (#)

ta (63, 63 a., 63 b., 63 c., 63 d.)

T[?]SE

TS[H]E

dhV / d[h]ye(:)NOTE

t[h]e: / t[h]ye(:)NOTE

da (19, 19. a., 19 aa., 19. b., 19. c.)

tse: (64)

T[?]SA

TS[H]A

dhV⁽³⁾

t[h]a:

da (#)

tsa(:) (65, 65. a., 65. b., 65. c.)

T[?]SO

TS[H]O

dhV/d(h)wV^NOTE

t[h]/t[h]wo:^NOTE

da (21)

tso(:) (66)

S[H]E

se:

sa (22)

se(:) (67, 67. a.)

S[H]A

sa:

sa (23)

sa(:) (68)

final: s (68)

S[H]O

so: / swo:^NOTE

sa (24, 24. a., 24. b.)

so(:) (#)

sa(:) (69)

so: + u sao (69. a.)

K[?]E

K[H]E

g[^]V

k[^]V

ga (25, 25. a., 25. aa., 25. b.)

ka (70)

K[?]A

K[H]A

gV

gyV

g^V (26. b.)

ga (26, 26. b.)

g + i + a

ga (26, 26. a., 26. bb.)

ka (71)

K[?]O

K[H]O

ga (27. a., 27. b.)

ka (72, 72. a., 72. b.)

K[?]XE

KX[H]E

g[^]hV

k[^][h]e:

ga (28, 28. a., 28. b., 28. c.)

kxe(:) (73, 73. a., 73. b., 73. c.)

khxe(:) + o khxo(:) (73. d.)

K[?]XA

KX[H]A

ghV⁽⁴⁾

k[h]a:

ga (29, 29. a.)

kxa(:) (74, 74. a., 74. b., 74. c.)

K[?]XO

KX[H]O

ghV

k[h]o:

ga (30)

go (30, 30. a., 30. b.,30. c.)

kxo(:) (75, 75. a., 75. aa., 75. b., 75. c.)

X[H]E

g[^]^wV

g[^]^wV + H (?A)

g[^]^whV

k[^]^we:

ha (31, 31. aa., 31. aaa.)

ha + ? + i

he: (31. b.)

ha + ? + i hi (31. aa., 31. aaa.)
ha + o ho(:) (31. c.)

+
xa(:) (76, 76. a.)

X[H]A

g^wV

g^wV + H (?A)

g^whV

k^wa:

ha (32, 32. a., 32. aa., 32. bb., 32. b., 32. c., 32. d., 32. e., 32. f., 32. g., 32. h.)

ha + o hu(:) (32. ee.)

xa(:) (77, 77. a., 77. b., 77. c., 77. d.)

X[H]O

g^wV

g[^]^wV + H (?A)

g^wV

k^wo:V

ha (33)

xa(:) (78)

M[H]E

me:

ma (34, 34. a.)

final: m´ (34)

me(:) (#)

M[H]A

ma:

ma (35, 35. a., 35. aa.)

ma(:) (80)

medial: ma(:) (83 d.)

final: m (42. a., 48. c.)

M[H]O

mo:

ma (21. a.)

final: m (00)

mo(:) (#)

final: m (77. c.)

N[H]E

l[^]V

l[^]e:

na (#)

_^na_ ^† (#)

ne(:) (82)

ne(:) + i ni(:) (82. b.)

ne(:) + u no(:) (82. a.)

na(:) (82, 82. a.)

N[H]A

la:

na (38, 38. a., 38. b., 38. c., 38. d., 38. e.)

final: n (#)

final: _ⁿ_ ^† (5. aa., 14. a.)

na(:) (83, 83. a., 83. b., 83. c., 83. d., 83. e.)

na(:) + i ni(:) (63. a.)

na(:) + u no(:) (83)

N[H]O

Lo:

na (39, 39. a., 39. b., 39. bb., 39. c.)

_ⁿ_ ^† (#)

na(:) (#)

na(:) + u no(:) (84)

Q[H]E

(n)g[^]V

(n)k[^]e:

ga (40)

ke(:) (#)

Q[H]A

(n)gV

(n)ka:

ga (41)

na (41)

ka(:) (86, 86. a., 86. b.)
final: n (63. c.)

Q[H]O

(n)gV / (n)gwV /
(n)g^wV^NOTE

(n)ko:

ga (42, 42. a.)

ko(:) (#)

R[H]E

re:

Øa (#)

medial: re (41)

Øe(:) (#)

medial: re(:) (66, 8, 86. b.)

medial (in compound): re(:) + u ru(:)(88)

R[H]A

ra:

Øa(:) (44)

medial: ra (#)

Øa(:) (89)

medial: ra(:) (32. f., 83)

R[H]O

Lo:

Øoa (45)

medial: ra (75. b.)

medial: ro (53)

Øo(:) (90)

medial: ru(:) (89)

medial: ro(:) + u ru(:) (90)

medial: ro(:) + i ri(:) (90)

PL / IE / NAMA LEXICAL COMPARISONS

(IE entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny)
entries marked by have been reconstructed by the author
(:) indicates unrecorded vowel length required by reconstruction**
E = Egyptian; OInd = Old Indian; IE = Indo-European;
S = Sumerian

VOWELS

PL E / A / O

Nama a
PL E / A / O + H/HH

Nama a(:)
PL E / A / O + ¿

Nama e(:) / i⁽⁷⁾
PL E / A / O + F/F[H]

Nama o(:) / u⁽⁷⁾
PL E + lengthening*

Nama e(:) / i(:)
PL A + lengthening*

Nama a(:)
PL O + lengthening*

Nama o(:) / u(:)

*lengthening through preceding a) aspirated affricate;
b) aspirated flap; c) aspirated nasal; d) aspirated spirant; and
H / HH

(1)

?E-?A; ("tooth-STATIVE) tooth[sharp]"), N |a:, 'sharp'; ‡a:(-b), 'arrow' f cf. (IE in e:do-, 'food', listed under *ed- [for *e(:)d-], 'eat'; in *1. edh-, 'pointed' [+ T?SE); (S i-5, '*tooth [sign reads i-5, and means 'tooth'] - J. 15); id, '*food [sign reads id, and means 'reward'; it is composed of J. 629, which depicts 'right hand and arm' with J. 669, 'rye']' - J. 628); (E j, '*sharp [Gardiner M17 depicts a 'flowering reed', which has a sharp edge, and reads j]'; in jbH, 'tooth, tusk'); RATIONALE: human teeth have a sharp edge, and the of many anmals are pointedly sharp [properly ?A].

(2)

?A ^a ("forehead, here"), be present); N KhoeKhoe !?â, 'know; head'; a, 'be'; RATIONALE: to be here is to be.

2. a. ?A-¿E ("top-like), sharp, painful"), N |ai, 'ill'; |ae / |ae(-)b, 'illness'; cf. (IE *2. ai-, 'penetrate something, drive, overpower, sicken'); RATIONALE: top refers to the sharp points on grasses; and sharp points are painful.

2. aa. ?A-¿E ("top-like), head"), N ai(-)s^f, 'face (fem.)'; cf. (IE ); (S - J. 0000); (E ); RATIONALE: top refers here to the head and face.

2. bb. ?A(-¿E) ("nuclear family[-like]), nuclear relative[non-nuclear relative]"), N â(-b)/(-s), 'younger brother/sister' ; |ai, 'cousin, cross-cousin'; ai(-s), 'my mother'; |ai, 'fornicate, [{make new} family'; possibly sexual relations with cousins]'; î(-b), î(-s), 'father, mother [progenitor, progenetrix]', cf. (IE*eibh- [for *a(:)ibh-], 'have sexual relations'); RATIONALE: '-like' the nuclear family extends 'family' to cousins.

2. b. ?A-FO(-¿E) ("family-ear[-like]), family adjudicator"), awo(-)b / abi(-b), 'father, forefather'; |ù(i)i(-)s, 'mother-in-law (feminine)'; cf. (IE awo-s, 'maternal grandfather' - Latin avia, 'grandmother' - Greek aîa, 'primeval mother'); (S 'u-5, 'lord of the house' - J. 95); RATIONALE: the hearer of disputes is effectively the leader.

2. c. ?A-NA(-T?SA) ("top-thing(-body)), [fore]head(, chin)"), not found yet in Nama; cf. (IE in a(:)ndher-, '*chin', in Greek anthereó:n, 'chin'; in a(:)nt-s, 'frontside, forehead'); (S an, 'head' - J. 14); (E in jn', 'chin'; xnt, 'face, in front of' [this word displays an irregular correspondence of Egyptian x to PL ? which cannot, at present, be explained]); RATIONALE: the (fore)head is something on top.

2. d. ?A-RE ("top-scratch), mound"), N ‡àre(-)b^f, 'dirt'; cf. (IE 4. *er-, 'earth'); (S in ar-2, 'ruin' - J. 572; (E in j3.t, 'mound'); RATIONALE: disturbed earth is a mound.

2. e. ?A-FE(-?A)(-¿E) ("forehead/face (vb.)(-bind(-STATIVE)(-like)), direct attention to"), N: !ûi, 'to watch over, guard'; !u:(-)s, 'forehead', cf. (S u-6 [for ü:-6], 'admire, recognize, catch sight of' - J. 801); (IE: *8. a(:)u-, *a(:)we:i-, 'sensually perceive, comprehend'); RATIONALE: 'binding the gaze to something' suggests concentrated attention and perception.

(3)

?O(-FA)(-SO) ("cheek(s), mouth, orifice[-SET][-skin]) mouth, hole[mouth][mouth, lips]"), N a:(-s), 'hole'; o:, 'to eat, feed off, devour'; cf. (IE in ); (S remotely uš-7 [for us-x], *mouth [sign reads uš-7, and means 'cry out, sing, conjure'] - J. 18); (E *1. o:us-, 'mouth'); RATIONALE: the cheeks form the mouth, an orifice, through which we eat.

(4)

¿E ("voice, word, speak, -like [word for] ), word"), N -e, we (plural); -i, 'oblique and accusative suffix'; cf. (IE -*y, 'derivative/genitive/locative suffix'); (S i, 'speech' - J. 270; i-5, 'voice, speak' - J. 15); (E -j, 'my'; j, 'say'); RATIONALE: the voice is the ultimate source of word and speak.

(5)

¿A ("eye(-socket)^b, see"), N: i:, 'to look, appear, seem'; ‡à:, 'look into the sun with the hand before the eyes, seek honey'; (cf. S in i-10 [for *î-10], 'see' - A HREF="ProtoLanguage-Bibliography.htm#Jaritz">J(aritz). 684 + J. 420; in in-4, 'watch' - J. 161); (E in (j)nw, 'see, look'); RATIONALE: the natural activity of the eye is seeing, watching.

¿A-¿E

eye(-socket-like

‡ê

cf.

e-3

*ê-3

en(i/u)

*ên(i/u)

*e:n

RATIONALE

¿A-¿E-NA

eye(-socket-like-one

‡âiⁿ

cf.

en(i/u)

*ên(i/u)

*e:n

RATIONALE

(6)

¿O ("fist, hold), object"), N u:, 'to take'; -i, 'it' (nom. and acc.); i, 'who (relative stem)'; -i, 'common gender singular nominal ending'; ||î, 'he; self'; cf. (IE yo-, 'relative stem'; -*yo-, causative); (S u,'hand' - J. 750); (E in h3, 'grasp [the meaning of]'; Egyptian h, Gardiner O4, depicts a 'fist with closed fingers':

); RATIONALE: closed fingers = fist, something held = object.

(7)

P?E; ("urine),urine"); N |u:(-b), 'urine; |ü(-s), 'faeces', (IE **wei- [

**bei-], '*urine'; probably first element in *3. weis-, 'flow away, unclean liquids, stink'); (S be-5 [for bi-7], 'defecate, excrement' - J. 893); (E ); RATIONALE: no need for an explanation here.

(8)

P?A-RHE; ("cleft-come) come cleft, stammered"), N are, 'hesitate, stammer', cf. (IE barbar, 'stammer', listed under baba, word for sound, for meaningless speech); (S bar, 'to split; foreign' - J. 118); (E perhaps in p3.w, 'falsehood [?], gossip [?] {, nonsense [?]}); RATIONALE: splitting up words as in stammering was equated with foreign accents.

(9)

P?O(-FA)/(-?A)/(-¿E); ("cheek/blow-SET/STATIVE/-like) cheek[lips/cheeks/kiss][bead up=sweat]{sweaty]"), N ||oa, 'to kiss'; ao(-)sen [+ sen, reflexive], 'sweat' in abo(-)b [?A-, 'family'], 'father['family-kiss' = 'honored one']', cf. (IE in *bu-, 'lip[s], kiss' [+ FA, SET]; in sweid- [for *swei(-d)- [+ T?A, 'give'], 'sweat'); (S bu-5 [for bû-5], 'blow, inflate' - J. 871); (E in fd [+ T?A, 'give'], 'sweat'); RATIONALE: kisses were frequently placed on the cheek.

(10)

P?FE; ("foot) track"), N -b, 'he (nom.)'; -bi [P?FE-¿E], 'him (acc.)'; -b, masculine singular nominal ending, cf. (IE *-bh-, formant of animal names ['track']); (S in bi-bi-re [for pi-2-pi-2-re], 'scatter, disperse' - 2x J. 431 + J. 132); probably in pil-6, 'male' - J. undetermined — see Sumerian Dictionary; (E b [variant of b.w, 'tracks'], 'place'); RATIONALE: there is a strong tendency for humans to think in dualistic terms. With 'female' designated as 'the unmoving one' SHA, in Nama, 'male' is associated with P?FE, 'track', implying 'movement' but not specifying actual; movement through leaving 'tracks'.

(11)

P?FA-?A/HA/FA; ("project outside-STATIVE/air/FREQUENTATIVE) stand out, be/take exception(al)/speak loudly/loud"), N |oa, 'to deny, disavow, disown dishonestly [take exception]'; ao(-)||na: / ao||nâ, 'to preach, tell [-||nâ is probably the root of ||nâu, 'hear' {NHA, 'vibrate'}]', cf. (IE *2. bhe:/e, bho:/o [for *bha:-], particle of assurance and emphasis; *2. bha:-, '[important] speech'); (S - J. 000); (E in phrase m[j] bj, 'no' [no exception]; in bjbj, 'acclamation'); RATIONALE: to project outside of something is to not be an integral part of it: an exception to it; prominent air release is 'loud'.

(12)

P?FO(-HO)(-¿E); ("leg-charge) move on foot, run [away] to[be flighty, afraid]"), N be: [from *ba:i], 'move, run away, fade from sight'; !ao, 'be afraid', cf. (IE in *bho:i-, 'be afraid [flighty]'); (S bu [for pû] / bu-2 [for pû-x], 'flit, chase about' - J. 675 / J. 324); (E in bh(3), 'flee'); RATIONALE: the leg is integrally associated with (fast) movement; and a leg making small movements signifies readinees for flight.

(13)

FE-¿E(-¿E)/(-RO)/(-SHA)(-RO); ("muscle/vine-like(-like)(-INTENSIVE)(CONDITION)) strong, tough(strong)(very strong)(strength)(very powerful]"); N |gai, '(to be) strong' [PKK |ai, '(to be) strong'], cf. (IE *3. wei-, a. set about something, on the one side, go, stay on a straight course, way, low, on the other side, go after something, strive for, chase after, long for, want to; b. be strong; in *wi/i:(-)ro-s, 'man', really 'the strong one, *hero'; in wi:s-, 'vitality, youthful strength, time of youth', listed under *3. wei- v. supra; in *wis-ro-, '*very energetic' [cf, Greek , 'quick, fast'], listed under *3. wei- v. supra); (S in gil-2 [for g~²îl-2], '*strong [sign reads gil-2, and means 'powerful, strong, great']'- J. 834; in g~iš [for g~²îs], 'power' - J. 561); (E -wj[j], admirative; in wr [for wjr], 'chief, great one, magnate, ruler (of a foreign land)'; in wz(r) [for wjz{r}], 'strong, powerful, wealthy, influential'); (Arabic in wâlin [w-y-l], 'ruler'); RATIONALE: 'connecting general power with physical strength is natural.

(14)

FA(-?A) ("leaf[-STATIVE]),vegetable[fragile, weak, incapable]"); N ||oa, 'to be unable/incapable of doing'; v. infra 14. a., (IE in *wa:/ai-, 'weak, suffering'; (S u-2, 'leaves, plant' - J. 593); (E w, negative enclitic particle; RATIONALE: too weak to do is to not be able to do.

14. a. FA-NA ("leaf-thing), greens, food"), N !ûⁿ, 'eat'; !uⁿ(!uⁿ), 'eat, food, fruit'; ‡uⁿ, 'graze'; cf. (IE in *3. wendh-, 'hair, beard'; **wen-, '*foliage' + *dh, 'body part'); (S unu-2,'food, meal' - J. 680 + J. 391); (E wn, '*flower' [Gardiner's M42, "flower"]); RATIONALE: an edible leafy vegetable.

(15)

FO(-?A)/(¿E); ("ear[-STATIVE)/[like] ear[,curl{ed}, wilt[, wilt]"), N !u:, 'to wilt, wither'; cf. (IE *2. wei-, 'wilt'); RATIONALE: the curled border of the ear was associated with other natural phenomena of curling, like wilting.

15. a. FO-RE ("curl-cause to be), curl and blacken with heating/burning[, sunburn {?}]"), N in sore(-)s, 'sun' [SA+, 'strong'], cf. (IE in *12. wer-, 'burn, burn up, blacken'; *4. swer-, 'cut, stick, fester, suppurate[, burning sensation; not s-mobile {SHO+, 'good'} but SA+, 'strong']; in Old Indian Surya, 'sun', the 'blackener'); (S - J. 000); (E in w3m, 'bake'); RATIONALE: the negative aspect of the beneficial sun is blackening through dehydration.

(16)

T?E; ("(ball of the) foot-STATIVE[-like]) spin, hurry[, spinning, hurrying]"), N da:, 'to step, tread'; cf. (IE in *2. de(:)yə-, 'whirl, hurry'); (S de-6 (for di-6), 'stand up, stand, be firm, tread, hurry, go {sign reads di-6, and means the preceding]' - J. 410; di-7, 'hurry [sign reads di-7, and means 'hurry]' - J. 339); RATIONALE: the balls of the feet are the points of contact with the ground in spinning and hurrying.

16. a. T?E-FE ("wind-strong), twist off, castrate"), N dawi, 'castrate, geld', cf. (IE *3. deu-, 'distance one's self, need, lack'); (S perhaps du-7, 'whirl' - J. 786); (E ); RATIONALE: twisting and tying to prevent blood circulation in the testcles is still used for castration of animals.

(17)

T?A ("thumb/hand), drip, be at the side"), N dâ, 'to burn, become scalded' [possibly

T?A-?A]; v. infra 17. aa., cf. (IE *de-, *do-, demonstrative root, partially I-deictic, [for references to the side of the speaker]); (S ); (E ); RATIONALE: as a fire burns, burnt material drips off the sides of the fire.

17. a. T?A-?A-FA ("drip-STATIVE-FREQUENTATIVE), melted [away], burnt [away]"), N dâu, 'to flow [melt]'; v. infra 17. aa., cf. (IE *da:-, 'liquid, flow'); (S da-9, '*drip [sign reads da-9, and means 'drip']' - J. 635); RATIONALE: as the thumb extends from the hand, drops were visualized coming off of melting or burning material.

17. aa. T?A-?A-FA ("drip-STATIVE- FREQUENTATIVE), burn up"), N dao, 'make a fire'; cf. (IE *da:u-, '1. burn; 2. wound, torture, exterminate, inimical; uncertain whether identical in both meanings [somewhat partially as 'burning pain', partially 'destroy through fire, burn down the enemy settlements']'); (S possibly du-2 (for dû-2), 'sickness, be ill' if 'fever' [?] - J. 99); RATIONALE: as a fire burns, burnt material drips off the sides of the fire.

17. b. T?A-FA ("thumb/give-FREQUENTATIVE), give away/back]"), N dawa, 'to turn, invert, give back, return', cf. (IE *2. deu-, 'honor, allow'; do:(u)-, 'give (perfective)', describes the heaping up of goods for an offering: T?O-?A {Sumerian du-8, 'heap up, pile up' - J. 326}); (S du-8, 'loosen' - J. 326); (E dw, 'give, place, put'; RATIONALE: the release of thumb pressure while holding something in the hand, causing it to be released, describes giving the act of giving.

(18)

T?O; initial not found yet in Nama

(19)

T?SE ("pull out), set, place, release"), N v. infra 19. a. and 19. aa.); daí(-)b, deí(-b), 'milk'; cf. (IE in dhe:(i)-, 'suck, suckle'; v. infra 19. a. and 19. aa.); S possibly ze/i (for zi), 'live [inhale]' - J. 130; v. infra 19. a.); RATIONALE: an important function of fingers is to pull out things, release things from something holding them, pluck, milk.

19. a. T?SE-?A ("pull out-STATIVE), released, set"); N dì:, 'do, make'; di:, 'to do'; cf. (IE *2. dhe:-, 'set, place, lay'; *3. dhe:-, 'disappear, *be free'; *dhe:-, 'suck', listed under *dhe:(i)-, 'suck, suckle'); (S ze/i (for zî), 'live [breathe]' - J. 130; zeze, *pour out (for zîzî; probably better 'suck out of a skin-bag') [sign reads zeze, and means 'pour out'] - J. 715); RATIONALE: an important function of fingers is to pull out things, release things from something holding them, pluck, milk.

19. aa. T?SE-?A-¿E ("pull out-STATIVE-like), set, place, lay, release"),; N dei(-)b, 'milk (noun)'; cf. (IE *dhe:i-, 'set', in Avestan dadha:iti, 'he sets', listed under *2. dhe:-, 'set, place, lay'); *dhe:i-, 'suck', listed under *dhe:(i)-, 'suck, suckle'); (S ze/i (for zê, 'live [inhale]' - J. 130); RATIONALE: an important function of fingers is to pull out things, release things from something holding them, pluck.

19. b. T?SE-FA ("jab [with the finger]-FREQUENTATIVE), jab [repeatedly = stab]"); N do:, 'to stick, jab into'; cf. (IE in *dheu(-b/p)-, 'deep [horizontally], hollowed out[, tunnel, circular passage]' ); (S probably zu-2 [for zû-2], 'point of a battering ram, plough-share' - J. 15; possibly in zubi, 'irrigation ditch' - J. 101 + J. 774); RATIONALE: 'poking with the finger' is equated with hollowing out something by 'poking' it with a pick.

19. c. T?SE-¿E ("jab [with the finger]-like), point/jab at"); N dî, 'to ask [point at]'; cf. (IE in *dheig- [+K?XA], 'discover, create', listed (at the end) under *dheig^h- [+K?XE], 'knead clay'); (S probably zi [for zî], 'cut, remove, erase' - J. 130); (E in D(j)b', 'finger, point the finger at'; in D(j)H.w.ty, 'Thoth [the pointer = accuser]'); RATIONALE: 'pointing to something usually with the right index finger is also an important activity associated with finger; the idea can be intensified to 'pressing with a sharp point' = chisel out.

(20)

T?SA; initial not found yet in Nama

(21)

T?SO-MO; ("column of smoke-high degree), black(ened by smoke)"); N dama, 'Kaffir, black man', cf. (IE *dhem-, 'drizzle, (column of) smoke, stink, dusky, dark'); RATIONALE: this word points to connecting soot with blackness.

(22)

SE(-¿E) ("bodily secretion/excretion[-like]) secrete/excrete[, damp]"), N si:, 'to break wind'; sau, 'to recoil, shy away from, shun', cf. (IE in *sei-, 'drip, run, damp'; *3. seu-), 'bend, turn, drive away[, send out, get rid of]); (S in šed-6 [for še-3/ši-4], 'excrement' - J. 893); (E ???); RATIONALE: with this word, all bodily secretions except tears and nasal mucus are designated.

(23)

SA ("sinew) sinew, tie (together)"), N in sara(-)b, 'apparel, clothing'; cf. (IE *3. se:(i)- (for *sa:i-), 'bind'); (S sa, 'net, bundle, joint, tendon, string, sinew' - J. 169); (E *z, '*sinew` [Gardiner O34, 'bolt', rather 'cord with knot']); RATIONALE: sinew was a major material for tying.

SA-RE

sinew-make

sara(-)b

cf.

*4. ser-

*sar

sar

ARABIC

?asara

RATIONALE

(24)

SO ("skin(-spine)) skin(, back)"), N in soro(-)b, 'body'; in soro(-)s, 'shell'; we should expect *sara(-b) by the correspondences I have developed; and I have no explanation at the moment for o; cf. (IE likely to be in s(y)o:(u)ra: (for *syoura - cf. Latin su:ra, 'calf of the leg'); (S *šur, '*shoulder' (Comb. J. 897 = J. 171, gu-2, 'neck' + J. 832, lal, 'suspend' = 'shoulder'; the Akkadian transcription is šurru - J. 833, which is a duplication of J. 832, in combination with J. 281 (ši/er-3), reads šur-4 [for sur(u)-5 - J. 832 [?]); (E s3, 'back'); perhaps interestingly, (BASQUE *sor-, '*back', in sorbalda, 'shoulder' (balda, 'shelf'); sorburu, 'shoulder (top)'); RATIONALE: RA was available for 'spine' and the general meaning of 'back' but here we have literally 'skin-spine', designating the 'flat of the back'.

SO-FA(-¿E)

pull back[-like]

sôa(-)sen / sôa

suru

cf.

*3. seu-

sug-6

sug[~]²-6

and

RATIONALE

SO-MO

pull back-to a high degree

sam

cf.

*sem-

sum

zm3

sm3

RATIONALE

made

(25)

K?E(-FA); ("penis-poke[-FREQUENTATIVE]) poke[, prod into movement]"), N |go:, 'to stab, pierce, puncture ['prod']'; v. infra 25. a. and 25. b.; cf. (IE *g^eu-, 'demand, hurry [?][, drive {with a cattle-prod}]); (S gu-2 [for gû-2], 'force' - J. 171); RATIONALE: the male movements of sexual contact have been projected to the outside world.

K?E-?A(-¿E)

call attention to-STATIVE(-like)

!gei

cf.

ge:(i)-

*go:(i)-

gi/e-4

gî-4

RATIONALE

K?E-?A(-¿E)

split-STATIVE(-like)

‡ga:

||gai

géi

cf.

*g^e:i-

ki:l

gi-4

gî-4

RATIONALE

K?E-NA

penis-thing

‡gaⁿ(-)b

‡gaⁿ(-)s

cf.

*1. g^en-

cf.

gno:tós

gno:té:

ginan

RATIONALE

(26)

K?A(-?A)(-P?FO)/(-NA); ("jaw, kneecap(-STATIVE)(-PLACE)/(-thing), jaw, kneecap{, kneel][, kneecap, kneel,submit, serve]{chin]"), N in !gan(-)s, 'chin'; v. infra 26. a. and 26. b and 26. bb.; ‡ga:(-)b, 'servant'; ‡ga:(-)s, 'maid' [misanalyzed as ‡ga: + -b, masculine; '*one who has knelt, submitted, served']; cf. (IE *ga(:)bh-, 'knee(l), submit', in *ga(:)bh6s-, in Old Norse kefser, 'captive', and Anglo-Saxon cefes, 'maid, concubine'); (S gab/p-2, 'assistant [really 'war-captive']' - J. 141); (E k, '*cup' [Gardiner V31 portrays a 'cup' and reads ]); RATIONALE: man's first cup was the oral area supported by the jaw below.

K?A-¿E-MHE(-¿E)/(-FA)

cup-like=womb+soft one=female[-like])

‡ga(:)me(:)

!ga(:)mme(:)

|gau(-)s

cf.

g^em(e[:])-

*gyem[e[:]]-

geme

*gêmê

Hm.t

kjm.t

RATIONALE

K?A-¿E

jaw-like=chew

||gae/i

||gû(-)b

cf.

g^(y)eu-

cf.

kewa

ga-4

kjw

RATIONALE

K?A-¿E-NA(-FA)(-T?SA)

jaw-like-thing(-SET)(-body)

‡gàn-i

cf.

*2. g^enu-

**gyen-u-

*g^enədh-

RATIONALE

(27)

K?O(-FA) ("neck=twist(-FREQUENTATIVE), twist[, twist around], N v. infra 27. a. and 27. b; ||goa, 'break (*be bent)'; in ||gûi, 'to change direction suddenly, veer, swerve'; cf. (IE in geu-ro-s, 'curly [vertically twisted] hair', listed under ge:u- [for *geu- and *ge:u-], 'bend, crimp, arch'); S gu-2, 'neck' - J. 171); RATIONALE: A notable capability of the neck is its ability to allow the head to twist in various directions.

K?O-¿E

twist-like)

‡gai

!gae

cf.

*gei-

ge/i-16

*gü-x

RATIONALE

K?O-RE

twist[ed]-cause to be

gari

cf.

*3. ger-

T3.w

RATIONALE

K?O-?A-¿E

neck, shout-STATIVE-like

‡gai / ‡gei

cf.

*go:(i)-

*ge:(i)-

gu-2

RATIONALE

(28)

K?XE(-?A)/(-¿E)/(-RE)//(-FA)/(-RO), ("face[-STATIVE][-like]/[cause to be]/[part]//[FREQUENTATIVE]) face[, bare{d}][, lacking][, face][, face]//completely bare, empty=pour out"), N ga, 'not'; !gâ:, 'become bald'; |gâ, '(to be) poor'; |gâ:, 'poor', ||ga, 'desire'; ||gé:, 'strangle[lack air] as in IE *ghei-, from which AS gi:pian, 'gasp for breath', listed under *2. g^he:-, 'yawn, gape'; !gao, 'stop raining [pour out]'; |gawi / |gapi, 'sprinkle, spray, damp down (laundry)'; ‡goa(-)b, 'clay, mud [bare spot]', cf. (IE g^he, in Sanskrit hi, emphatic with imperatives, 'indeed, assuredly', listed under ghe, particle; *1. g^he:-, 'be empty [better: 'bare'], missing'; *1. g^he:i-, 'be empty [better: 'bare'], missing'; *2. g^hei- : *g^hi-, 'winter, snow', i.e. 'bare time'; *g^heu-, 'pour [out]'; in *g^her-, *'face' in Czech zrak, 'face' = Egyptian Hr, 'face' v. infra); (S v. infra 28. a. and 28. b.; perhaps possibly ki, 'toward[if = 'facing' {?}]' - J. 812]); (E *H, *face [Gardiner D2, 'face']; in Hr, 'face, over'; normal reading of D2 is Hr; in H3.y, 'be naked'); RATIONALE: the face, being mostly hairless, was associated with bareness and lack of something; also, naturally 'bald'.

K?XE-?A-FA

face[-STATIVE][-FREQUENTATIVE]

!gao

||ga

‡gu:

‡gôa

v. supra

cf.

g^he:u-

giwian

*2. g^he:-

*g^he:u-

Hjw

RATIONALE

desire

KHA

K?XE-RE

face, bare-lip/cause to be

initial not found yet in Nama

cf.

*g^her-

, kir-4, '*face' [sign reads kir-4, and means 'face'] - J. 15; kiri-3 means 'nose' - J. 15); (E H3, enclitic particle: 'would that . . . [we need . . .]'; H3, '*face [Gardiner F4, which is used to write H3.t, 'forehead, front', portrays a lion's relative bare face] and body to the shoulder']); RATIONALE: the face, being mostly hairless, was associated with bareness and lack of something; this root does not express the desire for something so much as announces a deficiency that one desires will be remedied.

28. c. II. K?XE-RE ("face, bare-cause to be, scrape"), N giri(-)b, 'pig'; cf. (IE *2. g^her-, 'scratch, scrape, score'); (S kir, 'swine' - J. 643); (E H3, 'run aground'; H3.y, 'be naked'); RATIONALE: swine are notable for rooting and scoring the earth in their search for food under the surface.

(29)

K?XA(-FA)/(-?A)(-¿E)(-T?O), ("hair, hang[FREQUENTATIVE]/[-STATIVE][-like][-lump]) hair(, hanging over, left out)/(, hang {behnd} [goat/sheep])(hairy)(hairy tail[?])"), N !gà, 'hang'; ||gâ, 'hang something around one's neck'; ‡ga, 'sheep'; !gâ(-)b, 'back, rear'; in ‡gâⁿ, 'back'; !gau, 'to leave over, be left over ['hang over=leave out']'; ‡gawa / ‡gapa, 'open (of terrain)'; ||gâ, 'to become thirsty ['gape']'; !gâ, 'listen, pay attention to [listen open-mouthed]', cf. (IE in *gha(:)-, listed under *g^he:-, 'yawn, gape [hang{?]]'; *gha(:)wo-, 'false, prevaricated [leave out]'; in *g^ha(:)n- [for *gha(:)n-], 'yawn, gape'; in *g^han-s- [for *gha(:)n-s-], 'goose' [from the habit of hissing with open bill]; in gha(:)ido-, 'billy-goat, goat'; in gha(:)ita:-), 'curly or wavy hair'; probably in g^ho: [for *gha(:); from K?A-¿E-?A {?}], 'behind, after, on account of'); (S ka, 'hair, wool' - J. 15; ka, 'gate [portcullis, 'hanging']' - J. 234); (E in H3, 'occiput, behind' [ME 'hair', K?XA-¿E-RHE; Gardiner D1, which depicts a 'head with hair and beard' is the determinative]); RATIONALE: hair at the back of the head was connected with the broader concept of hanging.

K?XA-FA(-P?FA)

hang-FREQUENTATIVE[-prominence]

||goa(-)s

||goab

cf.

*gheub(h)-

gub-3

kûb-3

RATIONALE

(30)

K?XO; ("throat, (tubular) hole) throat, hole"), N !goe(-)b, 'trachea, windpipe'; ‡ga(-)b/(-)s, 'well'; cf. (IE reduplicated: in *ghegh-, 'excavation'); (S ku-11, '*hole' - J. 812); ku, 'hole' - J. 893a); (E x, 'hole, throat' - Gardiner Aa1, 'human placenta', better pictures a shaded hole, and reads x; reduplicated: in xx, 'neck, throat'); RATIONALE: the tubular passage of the throat was projected onto other tubular holes.

30. a. K?XO-FA(-¿E); ("throat, (tubular) hole-FREQUENTATIVE(-like)) excavate(d hole)[deep]"), N !goa(-)b, 'depression, ditch'; gaugau, gou, 'hide [in a hole]'; |gawi / |gapi, 'high [likely better: deep]', cf. (IE g^heu- [for **gheu-], '*empty space', listed under *g^he:u-, 'yawn, gape'; in gheweya:-, 'excavation'); (S ku-11 [for kû-11], '*hole' - J. 812); ku [for kû], 'hole' - J. 893a); (E xw, 'absence [space: interior of a hole]'); RATIONALE: the tubular passage of the throat was projected onto other tubular holes; creating new tubular holes is excavation.

30 b. K?XO-FHE/?A; ("throat, (tubular) hole-connector/STATIVE) connect (from the throat) = speech/connected"), N gowa(-b), 'language'; !go:, 'to bellow (of cattle on smelling blood)'; |gu, 'near'; cf. (IE in gho[:]w(e:)-, 'become aware of[ connect to], take into account[, mention, obey]'; in g^ho: [for *gho:-], 'behind, after, on account of'); (S gu-3 [for *kû-x], '[speaking] voice' - J. 15); (E xw [written xxx], 'beside [connected with]'); RATIONALE: connected sounds constitute speech; then connect generalized for non-speech situations.

30. c. K?XO-RHE/RA; ("throat, (tubular) hole-come/back) come from a hole = grow/hole in the back, ridge with gaps between crests"), N gora(-b), 'flower'; |gare(-)b, 'mountain ridge, crest', cf. (IE in *ghre:-, 'grow, turn green'. listed under *3. gher-, 'stick out'; in ghre:-ti-, 'crest, ridge', listed under foregoing); (S in gur-12 [for kur-2], an alternate reading of the signs for bulug-3, 'grow' - 2x J. 101; kur, 'moumtain(s)' - J. 668); (E x3.w, 'plants'; in x3s.t, 'hill-country'); RATIONALE: growing is described here as something (sprout) coming from a hole in the ground; mountain crests are 'backs with holes'.

(31)

XE(-FA); ("body-hair-[-SET]) body-hair[, beard]"), N |hâ(-)b, 'long fly-whisk, thick and long hair'; |hau(-)b, 'beard, goatee'; v. infra 31. aa. and 31. aaa.; cf. (IE g^we:/ei- [for g^^we:/ei-], 'skin, pelt, *feather'); in g^we:i-no [for g^^we:i-no], 'hair [Ossete γun, 'hair']'; in g^wiya: [for g^^wiya:)], 'sinew, bowstring'); (E in šn.w [for šjn.w], 'hair(s)'); in šw.t [for šjw.t], 'feather'); RATIONALE: bundled hair is used as a fly-whisk like an animal's tufted tail.

31. a. XE-?A ("body hair-STATIVE), made of body hair = woven hair cord"), N possibly |hî:, 'hemp' v. infra 31. aa.; cf. (IE in *g(^)^whi:-, 'vein, tendon, sinew, band', listed under *g(^)^wheyə-); v. infra 31. aa. and 31. aaa.; RATIONALE: before man learned to separate and process sinews and intestine for cord, thread and cord was made from woven animal hair.

31. aa. XE-?A-¿E ("body hair-STATIVE-like), cord made from animal and plant materials other than hair"), N |hî:, 'hemp'; cf. (IE *g(^)^whi:-, 'vein, tendon, sinew, band', listed under *g(^)^wheyə-); (E first element in šz [if š(jj)z - XE-?A-¿E-SA], 'rope'; cf. IE *g(^)^whi:s(-)lo-, 'tendon, sinew, cord, thread', listed under *g(^)^wheyə-); RATIONALE: before man learned to separate and process sinews and intestine for cord, thread and cord was made from woven animal hair.

31. aaa. XE-?A-¿E-NA ("body hair-STATIVE-like-thing), cord"), N !hìⁿ, 'tie'; cf. (IE first element in *g(^)^whi:-, 'vein, tendon, sinew, band', listed under *g(^)^wheyə-); (E first element in šz [if š(jj)z], 'rope'; cf. IE first element in*g(^)^whi:s(-)lo-, 'tendon, sinew, cord, thread', listed under *g(^)^wheyə-); RATIONALE: before man learned to separate and process sinews and intestine for cord, thread and cord was made from woven animal hair.

31. b. XE-?A(P?A) ("body hair-STATIVE(-spot), spongy place, sponginess"), N |he:b, 'fattiness, lard'; cf. (IE *2. g^we:b(h)-, '*quagmire [in MEng 'quab' (morass), OIcl kvap, 'jelly and jellylike things'], slimey, flabby, tadpole, toad'); (b>E possibly šp, 'be blind'); RATIONALE: the sponginess of thick hair applied to semi-solid things.

31. c. XE-FA ("prick-FREQUENTATIVE), puncture"), N ho:, 'to hit, strike (target)'; cf. (IE ); (S ); (b>E ); RATIONALE: the thin top of a some hair/fur can lightly prick.

(32)

XA(-FA) ("press down), be brought into the world through contractions [infant], mix together, labia majora[, mix completely = stir]"), N ||ha:- / ha:(-)s, 'ravine, gorge, gulley; womb, uterus, afterbirth, placenta'; in ||hai, 'to hoe' = 'cause a groove' (XA-¿O); ||hà:, 'load something, stuff into'; ||ha:, 'fill (pipe), load (gun), to deserve; to equal'; |ha(:)o, 'to meet, assemble'; cf. (IE in g^wa:-, 'go, come, come into the world, be born'; v. infra 32. a.); (S HA-HA-HA, 'mix up (together)' - 3x J. 961); (E in š3, 'ordain (initiate)'; in š3', 'begin'); v. infra 32. d.); RATIONALE: the muscular constriction of swallowing was connected with birth contractions; in turn, delivery was equated with coming forth (for the first time) in general and beginnings; finally, pressing down was equated with mixing together.

32. a. XA-?A(-¿E)/(-FA) ("press down-STATIVE[-like]/SET), be brought into the world through contractions [infant, labia majora; also '{mixed} quantity = mixture'], mixed together[, appear]/[{mixed} quantity = all"), N ||hâ, 'to flee'; hà:, 'come'; hâ, 'to be [to be come]'; hàⁿ, perfect aspect suffix in verbs ['to be come away from']; in ||hai, 'to rise, appear (of sun and moon), sprout; to flee from'; |hae(-)s, 'a number of, a lot of'; hoa / hu:, 'all'; in huni, 'to stir' , cf. (IE g^wa:-, 'go, come, come into the world, be born'; in *g^wa:/a(-)dh-, 'submerge, *long cavity, in Greek bê:ssa, 'gully'); (S if not XA: HA-HA-HA, 'mix up (together)' - 3x J. 961); RATIONALE: the muscular constriction of swallowing was connected with birth contractions; in turn, delivery was equated with coming forth (for the first time) in general and beginnings; finally pressing down was equated with mixing.

32. aa. XA-?A/¿E ("press down-STATIVE/-like), pressed down = flattened/shallow"), N ‡ha:, 'flat, shallow, level, plain'; in ‡haba, ‡hawa, 'wide, broad'; ‡he:, ‡here, 'shallow', cf. (IE ); (S ); (E ); RATIONALE: this formation projects the visible pressing down during swallowing with a manual pressing down movement, flattening something.

32. bb. XA-?A-FA-¿E ("press down-STATIVE-SET), squeezed (pulsated){artery/vein} {vein/thread}]"), N |hawi(-)b / |habi(-)b, 'tassel, thread'; cf. (IE *g^wheyə- [for *g^weHa(:)-wei-], 'vein, sinew, bond'); (S ); (E ); RATIONALE: this compound describes a vein/artery as pulsating; and relates threads to small veins.

32. b. XA-¿E/FA ("press down-like/FREQUENTATIVE), pressing together, trapping/gather, reflexive: gather one's self, relax, invigorate"), N |hâi, 'to relax, rest'; ‡hài, 'hunt (by trapping with device or terrain'; ‡hai / hei, 'to become visible, known, to appear [be active, alive]'; |hû, 'to gather, meet, assemble'; cf. (IE 2. g^wei-, 'push together, close up, pen up'; in g^weyə-, 'overpower, power, suppress powerfully'; g^wei-, 'to live, invigorate'); (S he/i [better hê], 'mix' - J. 715 [this sign also reads ha-4]); RATIONALE: the muscular constriction of swallowing was connected with birth contractions; in turn, delivery was equated with coming forth (for the first time) in general and beginnings; finally pressing down was equated with mixing.

32. c. XA-ME ("press down-emit), bring out into the world through contractions [infant]"), N |hamá, 'come behind (set out after [?]), follow'; cf. (IE g^wem-, 'go, come, come into the world, be born'); (E šm, 'go [away], walk, set out, pass [property]'); RATIONALE: the muscular constriction of swallowing was connected with birth contractions; in turn, delivery was equated with coming forth (for the first time) in general and beginnings; finally pressing down was equated with mixing.

32. d. XA-RE ("press down-make), make a birth for, begin"), N initial not found yet in Nama; cf. (IE *g^wer-, 'neonate [Greek émbruon, 'neonate']', incorrectly listed under g^weru-, 'pole, spear'); (S har, 'small, young ['neonate']' - J. 723); (E in š3', 'begin'); RATIONALE: to make somthing a birth for something is to initiate/begin it.

32. e. XA-FA(-¿E) ("press down-[-FREQUENTATIVE][-like]), give birth to, begin[, complete preparations][, segregate]"), N |hao(-)s, 'bag [something in which we cram things]'; ||hao, 'to attend, be present; to gather (of clouds)'; ||hûi, 'to choose, select'; cf. (IE **g^weu-, '???'; this only indirectly attested form has been theorized by a competent IEist; *2. g^wei- [dissimilated from *g^wewey-], 'pack together, enclose, pen up'); (S ??? - J. 000); (E possibly šw, 'ascend [better: 'attain the requisite height']'); RATIONALE: when the participants have finished coming, they are gathered. When one gathers something together for some purpose, one selects it.

32. ee. XA-FA ("press down-[-FREQUENTATIVE]), press down effectually = pound down"), N !hû, 'butt, nudge, pound'; cf. (IE ??? ); (S ??? - J. 000); (E ???); RATIONALE: pressing down effectually leads progressively from 'nudge' to 'butt', finally to 'pound (down)'.

32. f. XA-(FA)-RHA ("swallow-[SET-]suspend), swallow[, swallowings = food]"), N hara(:), 'to swallow, inhale (gulp air)'; !horo(-)b, 'grain (especially wheat, rye)'; hore-, '(my) friend [mess-mate]'; cf. (IE *g^werə- [for *g^wera:-], 'swallow, throat', listed under *1. g^wer-); (E in š3b.w, 'meals, food'); RATIONALE: this compound describes the swallowing process: being suspended until swallowed.

32. g. XA-(FA)-RA ("press down-[SET-]back), press down[, depress]-back = hunchback"), N !hora, 'crippled, deformed'; cf. (IE **g^wer- [reconstructed from MHG querch], 'queer'); (S possibly hara-3, 'scoundrel' - J. 551); (E possibly in u>šw3(.w), 'poor [man]'); RATIONALE: 'hunchback' has been expanded outside Nama into 'odd, queer'.

32. h. XA ("very large indefinte inanimate plural ), who?"), N in hám, 'who? [+ MO, 'man]'; he, 'this[+ ¿E, '-like']'; hu:(-s), 'only, all'), cf. (IE v. N. 8 infra); (S -ha, collective suffix - J. 961); (E š in j-š-z.t, 'what?' [interrogative prefix + 'quantity' + 'it']); RATIONALE: in Nama, inanimate quantity substituted for animate quantity in interrogative pronouns.

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XO(-?A)(-FA)/(-RA)/(-RO); ("anus[-STATIVE][-SET]/[-nugget]/[-INTENSIVE]) anus, hole[, excrete][, {pile of} excrement'"]/[, {piece of} excrement]/[, bad-smelling, pucker]), N |ho:(-)b, 'rectum; sausage'; ‡hau(-)b, 'fresh dung'; |hû(-b), 'odor, stench (of male goat)'; |hoa(-)b, 'body odor'; |horo(-s), 'dry dung, manure'; |hara, 'dung, manure, contents of stomach; to digest'; in |huri, 'to pucker (material)'; possibly in ||hu:, 'to hole'; cf. (IE in *g^wo:u-, 'excrement, disgusting'; *g^wo(:)-, 'filth', listed under *g^wo(:)r-, 'filth'); (S hu-x, '*anus [J. 694 is composed of J. 689, 'intestine' + J. 750, 'hole', whch reads hu-3]' - J. 694; hul, 'bad-smelling, evil' - J. 806); (E Egyptian X, '*anus [Gardiner X32, 'animal' belly showing teats and tail' is better 'animal's rectal sphincter beneath tail']'; in X3.t, 'corpse, marsh, disease'); RATIONALE: the anus is naturally connected with excrement, filth, and disgust.

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ME(-¿E)/(-FA) ("tongue(-like)(-FREQUENTATVE)) tongue[, converse][exchange words][communicate into consciousness"); N -m´, 'we (dual)'; mî, 'to say'; in miⁿ, 'say'; probably in ||ama, 'buy', with unknown first element; mû¹⁵, 'see[, be conscious of]'; mû(-s), 'eye'), cf. (IE *me, 'me'; mei-no, '(shared) opinion, view', properly derived from *2. mei-, exchange, deceive, common (shared)'; in *me:udh- [for *meu-dh-], 'be attentive to, bethink'); (S in eme, 'tongue, language' - J. 50; mu, 'line of text[=thought]' - J. 102); (E in smj, 'report'; mj, 'like, similar to[, corresponding to, can be exchanged with]; written with Gardiner W19, 'milk-jug as carried in a net' but better interpreted as 'water-jar with looped rope, to be let down and withdrawn in a well); RATIONALE: the basic idea of this monosylllable is matching action or characteristics. While the core meaning is 'stick out of', the implied subsequent retraction provides the idea for reciprocity.

34. a. ME-¿E(-NA)/?A ("[project like a [tongue-like][palisade]/projecting), stake, pale/leave out, avoid'), N mâi, 'set up, put ('be fixed in the ground']'; cf. (IE *1. mei-, 'fortify [with pales]']; in *moi-n-, 'palisade', listed under *1. mei-; *1.me:, 'that not . . .', prohibitive); (S in men [for *mîn-7], 'crown' - J. 518); some ancient crowns were circlets depicting a fortress palisade; and designating its wearer as 'master of the fortress'; that is what this sign transparently does by being a combination of J. 458, 'enclosure' and J. 161, 'lord'; this traditional crown design was carried forward into modern times with the substitution of crenelated (castellated) walls for the ancient palisade;

mi-4 [for mî-4], '*pale' - J. 518; J. 518 also reads mi-4; in view of the composition of J. 518, it seems not too daring to suppose a meaning of 'pale' for this reading; (E in mn[n].w [for *mjn[n].w^k], 'fortress'; in mnj [for *mjnj], 'moor [ship], attach'; in mnj.t [for *mjnj.t], 'mooring post [pale]'; the sign for mn [*mjn] is Gardiner Y5, which clearly depicts a palisade; nothing says more about the state of Hieroglyphic Egyptian linguistics than the retention of an explanation for this sign as a 'draught(s)-board', an unconscienceable trivialization: m(j)n(w), '*palisade, fortress, plantation ; m [for mj], 'do not[, leave out, avoid]', negative imperative); RATIONALE: a tongue-like stake or pale, forming a pallisade, was visualized as projecting from the ground as an analog to a tongue projecting from the mouth.

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MA(-?A), ("breast-STATIVE), nurse"), N in mama(-)s, 'mother'; cf. (IE *ma/a:ma:, listed under *3. ma:-, 'mother'); (S in ama [for amâ), 'mother' - J. 462; cf. IE am(m)a, 'mother' = ?A-MA-?A, 'family nurser'); (E in mw.t, 'mother' [MA-?A-FA(-THO), , 'nurse-FREQUENTATIVE(-FEMININE)', 'feeder'; cf. IE *ma:w- in OHG muoma, 'maternal aunt'); RATIONALE: the natural purpose of the breast is to nurse; and to 'mother' falls this role.

35. a. MA-?A(-NA) ("area-STATIVE[-thing]), stay[, reside][residence]"), N maⁿ, 'stand ('remain' rather than 'be upright']'; cf. (IE *5. men- [for *ma:n- in Latin maneo:, 'stay'], 'stay, [reflexively: 'remain']); (S possibly in men-3 [for *man(a); men-5 {J. 822} also has the reading man(a); I suspect that men-3 also had a reading of *man-x], '*stand [sign reads men-3 and means 'stand']' - J. 410); (E mn [for *mjn], 'remain, dwell'); (PROTO-ALTAIC *mana, 'stand watch'); RATIONALE: to occupy an area is to stay. remain.

35. aa. MA-?A ("mound-INTERROGATIVE), place? = where?"), N ma / mâ, interrogative base; maⁿ, 'which?', cf. (S ma-a / ma-6, 'where?' - J. 639 + J. 949 / J.889); (E m, 'who? what?); RATIONALE: 'where' is a 'place'.

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MO; initial not found yet in Nama

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NE; initial not found yet in Nama

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NA(-¿E)/(-FA), ("one {thing}[-like][-number]), one[, that][, that]"); N in ne:, 'this'; in nau, 'the other (specific), alternative; that'; ||náⁿ, 'that'; |ni, 'other'; |nî, 'some, other'; cf. (IE *nei-, 'that', in Hittite anniš, 'that', listed under *eno-, 'that'); (S ne [for nê], 'this' - J. 338); (E in (j)nw, 'this, these'); RATIONALE: the nose was 'one' in an early body-touch counting system.

38. a. NA-?A(-FA) ("knot-STATIVE[-FREQUENTATIVE]), knotted[, knot together, mend by sewing]"), N ‡nawá, 'mend'; cf. (IE ((*s)ne:- [for (*s)na:-], 'twist threads, manipulate thread, therefore weave, spin, and sew'; in (*s)ne:u- [for (*s)na:u-], 'approximately "turn", especially "twist threads, fasten"'); (S nu, 'spin thread' - J. 119); (E in nw.t, 'yarn for weaving, cord [for mending {?}]'); RATIONALE: the knot characterizes mending through sewing; twisting characterizes making knots with tread and making material into thread.

38. b. NA-RE ("inside-cause to be), conceal"), N ‡nari, 'steal'; !nari, 'steal', cf. (IE *3. (s)ner-, 'penetrate, submerge, hiding-place, hole'); RATIONALE: conceal for the purpose of stealing.

38. c. NA-?A(-FA) ("drop-STATIVE[-FREQUENTATIVE]), drip [off]"), N ‡nâ, 'pour'; nâu, 'flow'; cf. (IE *2. na:-, 'be afraid, ashamed [running nose]'); *(s)na:u-, listed under *(s)na:-, 'flow, dampness'; RATIONALE: dripping (running) from the nose has been associated with fear or shame.

38. d. NA-¿E/FA/?O[-SO]/P?FE ("nostril-like/SET/orifice/skin/ANIMAL NAME), blow the nose/pair of nostrils=nose/nostril[nose]/rhinoceros"), N !naba-s/-i/-b, 'rhinoceros [nose-animal]'; !nâi, 'to blow'; ||nunu(-b), 'bridge of the nose[ reduplicated NA-FA, 'pair of nostrils = nose = all of the nose]', cf. (IE *na(:)s-, 'nose'); RATIONALE: the commonest activity associated with the nose after breathing is 'blowing it'.

38. e. NA(-?A) ("be inside), be engaged in action or at rest in a state"), N na-, present tense prefix; cf. (IE ); (S - J. 000 ); (E ); RATIONALE: 'to be in [an action or state' suggests progressive to me more so than present.

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NO ("stomach), stomach, jar"), N !na:(-)b, 'belly, stomach'; ‡nà:(-)b, 'stomach'; in |nai(-)s, 'navel'; |nae(-b), 'umbilical cord (of embryo)'; in ||noe, 'cut open the abdomen'; ||nôa, 'diaphragm'; cf. (IE in *no/o:bh-, 'navel'); (E in n(jw), 'bowl, *jar [Gardiner W24 portrays a 'jar', and reads {j}nw]'); RATIONALE: the use of animal stomachs for transport before pottery led to this terminology for jar.

39. a. NO ("stomach, basket), COMMON COLLECTIVE PLURAL"), N -n, nominative plural marker; cf. (IE -*n, plural marker in numerous verbal forms); (S -n, plural marker in numerous nominal, pronominal, and verbal forms - J. various in combination); (E -n, plural marker in numerous verbal forms); RATIONALE: the stomach became the prototype for a basket, jar, and other containers; and what they inclusively contain.

39. b. NO-FA ("be moved inside-FREQUENTATIVE), rest"), N naw/pu(-)s, 'slumber, nap'; ‡nó:(-)b, 'rest (n.)'; !nu:(-)s, 'sleeping place, resting place, nest' ; cf. (IE in *1. sneud(h)-, 'sleepy, slumber'); (S nu-2 [for nû-2], 'lie down, resting spot, become quiet, sleep' - J. 774); RATIONALE: one most commonly stays inside while resting — if possible.

39. bb. NO-FE ("to inside-strong), put inside/away with force"), N !nao, 'to load (cargo)'; cf. (IE *2. neu-, 'jerk, push [with force], pull [with force=haul]'); E nw(j), 'care for, take care of'; nwy, 'return, come [to someone], bring back [someone]); RATIONALE: to move someone/thing inside using strength and sometimes sudden motion.

39. c. NO-?A(-¿E)(-FA) ("be moved inside-STATIVE(-like)/(-FREQUENTATIVE)), be absent, negative[, absent][, be non-existent = completely absent]"), N !nâu, 'taboo, prohibited'; cf. (IE *1. *n_e [ *no(:)] / ne/e:i-, existential negative); (S nu [for nû], '[to be] not, no, without, un-' - J. 119); (E n, 'not'); RATIONALE: if something has been brought 'inside' ('there'), it is not currently 'here'.

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QE(-FA)-MO(-¿E); ("congeal-[FREQUENTATIVE][to a high degree][-like]) stick to[, cause to stick = glue together][sticky]"), N in !gom-mi, 'ice'; cf. (IE English gum; but this is a loanword from ultimately HE qmj); (S yyy , 'yyy' - J. 000); (E qmj, 'gummed'); RATIONALE: milk gets sticky as it dries; this is also a quality of very cold ice.

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QA-?A(-FA)(-¿E)/(-RE)(-PHFE), ("intestine-STATIVE[-SET[-like][-cause to be][-stink], intestines, fold/bend over"), N in |guib, 'bowels'; ‡na(re)pe(:)(-b), 'large intestine, colon', cf. (IE *geud- [for *(n)ga(:)ud-, 'intestine', listed under *ge:u- [for *(n)ga(:)u-], 'bend, crimp, arch'); (S possibly gu-du [for gû-du], 'buttocks' [

'intestines' {?}], - J. 924 + J. 910); (E in q(3)b, 'intestine, fold over, double over'; the spelling with 3 also means 'intestine': QA-RE-P?FO, IE *(n)grebh-, listed incorrectly under *3. ger-, 'turn, revolve'); RATIONALE: because of the arrangement of the intestines in the body cavity, they were equated with folding over.

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QO(-FA)/?A, ("skull) ball, (pair of) testicle(s)/globular"), N gù(-)b, 'ram'; gù:(-)s, 'sheep [ewe]']; ||go:(-)b, 'bull, tough person'; |gao(-)b, 'wildebeest (blue/black)'; ||gôa(-b)/(-s), 'frog', cf. (IE g^wou- [for *[n]4g^(w)ou-], 'cattle'; in geut- (for *[n]geu-to-, late formation, 'sack, *scrotum {N.B. Anglo-Saxon ce:od(a), 'sack', from which MEng 'cod' {'scrotum'}'}, listed incorrectly under ge:u-, 'bend, crimp, arch'; *go:g- [for *(n)o:(n)g-], listed under *ga:g-, *go:g-, 'something round, clumpy'); (S gu-4 (for (n)g[~]³u-4), 'cattle, bull' - J. 563); (E g.w, 'class of bull'); (CHINESE gû, 'bull'); RATIONALE: the ram and the bull were admired for the size of their testicles.

42. a. QO-MHA ("catch (by forming a bsll-shape-ceaselessly active=[palm of right] hand), catch with both hands cupped"), N !gam, 'bend (into a ball)'; ||gam, 'with a stoop'; cf. (IE *gem- [for *(n)gem(ə)-], 'catch with both hands, grasp'); (S - J. 000); (E gm(j), 'find, use one's hand, be able to do (grasp), control'); RATIONALE: the compound simply describes the action: 'ball-hand(s)'.

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RE; initial not found yet in Nama

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RA(-¿E)-MO; ("shade(-like)-to a hgh degree) darken"), N a(:)m, 'roast [darken meat]', cf. (IE in *re:-mo- [

reyémo-], 'dark', listed under *5, re:-); (S - J. 000); (E 3m, 'burn [up]'); RATIONALE: darkening during roasting is equated with shade from a tree .

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RO-NA; ("call out-thing) name"), N |on(-)s, 'name', cf. (IE first element in *1. reu-, 'roar, call out'); (S possibly first element in lu, 'disturb' - J. 894); (E rn, 'name'); RATIONALE: to initiate a conversation, the name should be be called out to summon the person with wom one wants to converse.

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HE; ("river) river"), N i:, 'go'; !a:(-)b [or from HHA{?}], 'river'; cf. (IE *1. e:i-, 'go'; possibly in *e(:)g^wh-, 'drink'; *e(:)g^hero-, 'pond [?], *river [N.B. Greek Akhéro:n]'; *e(:)rə, 'row'; *e(:)red-, 'flow, dampness'); (S {'}i-4, 'water, inundation[, river]' - J. 949); (E ???); RATIONALE: a river passes on a broad front (across).

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HA(-¿E)(- ("air[-like]), breathe, live[, time]"); N ||ae(-)b, 'time'; v. infra 47.a. and 47. b. II. and 47. d.; ; cf. (IE in *a(:)iw, 'vital energy'); (S a-2 (for â-2), 'strength, power, time' - J. 628 [J. 628 also reads ed/t, v. infra 47. a.]); RATIONALE: 'air' supports life (a measurement of time), and proper breathing facilitates energy (strength).

47. a. HA(-¿E)(-FA) ("air[-like][-SET]), breathe[, live][, life{-time}]"), N ||â, 'to love [pant]'; ||ai(-)b, 'time'; eo, eo(-s), 'already, very long ago, times of long ago', cf. (S e-11 (for ê-11), 'strengthen' - J. 809 + J. 410; the argument I will now propose will please no one but I record it for completeness: e-3 (for ê-3), J. 684 + J. 410, means 'go in/out'; with the same meaning, it can also be read ed-2; I suspect that this latter reading sets a pattern for associating ed-x with ê-x; a-2, 'strength, power, time' - J. 628, has the meanings we associate with HA-¿E but the form we associate with â; however, it also reads ed/t; in addition, ed-3 also reads e-11; I interpret these facts to mean that any sign that reads ed-x also should read e-x; though e-x is not recorded for a-2, I think the probabilities favor it; I therefore provisionally reconstruct *e-x (for *ê-x), 'strength, power, time' - J. *628); (IE in *aiw-/*ayu-, 'vitality [strength to live]'); (E possibly in jy.t, 'mishap, trouble, harm, wrong,' if the actual archsemantic base is 'be [unpleasantly] fragrant'); RATIONALE: 'air' enables breathing, and breathing is a characteristic of much life on earth; time can be equated with life, the most signicant measure of time for humans.

47. b. I. HA-?A/FHA(-¿E) ("exhale-STATIVE/FREQUENTATIVE[-like]), be absent/clear the lungs, make empty, hollow[, be absent]"), N |â, 'empty honeycomb'; !â, 'be hungry [feel empty]'; |â, 'to sneak away, defect [absent one's self]'; ||au, 'useless, insignificant, futile'; ||oa, 'cannot'; |u:, 'not to know'; ||oe, 'to go away. stay away, be absent', cf. (S ???); (IE *1. eu- (for *a(:)u-), 'lack, empty'); (E šw (for *jw^(d)), 'dry, empty, hollow'; in em>jw.ty, 'who/which is not' (i.e. 'who/which is empty/devoid of'; RATIONALE: 'air' enables breathing, and breathing is a characteristic of much life on earth; time can be equated with life, the most signicant measure of time for humans.

47. c. II. HA-FHA ("(subject to)air-FREQUENTATIVE), air out, dry"), N |ò:, 'dry up'; |o:, 'to become dry (of cow)'; cf. (S u-4-a (for *wa: [?]), 'be, become dry' - J. 684 + J. 949); (IE *au-, 'dry` in Greek aûos, 'dry', listed under *3. au-, 'down, away from'); (E šw (for *jw^(d)), 'dry, empty, hollow'; jw.j, 'be boatless ['be dry']'); RATIONALE: airing out competes with hanging in the sun as a normal way of drying.

47. d. HA-FHA-¿E/FA(-¿E) ("air-predator-like/nest[-like]), bird/bird-nest, egg[egg]"), N !u:, 'to whine, howl (of dog)'; |au(-b) / |au(-)i, 'falcon, hawk'; in awu(-s), apu(-s), 'ostrich egg shell'; cf. (S ); (IE *auei- (for *a(:)wa(:)i-, 'bird'; in o(:)(wi)y-om [ *a:wa:wei-, 'egg'); (S u-5 [for ü:-5, 'goose, bird' - J. 123; J.123 also reads 'dog' = HA-FHA [for û], 'wailer'; cf. Egyptian jw, 'dog'); RATIONALE: birds are characterized as the predators of the air. A bird's nest is the container and name for eggs.

47. e. HA-NA ("air-thing), breath"), N |ân, 'groan(, sigh)'; cf. (IE *3. an(ə)-, 'breathe, exhale'); (S an, 'sky, heaven, upper' - J. 14); RATIONALE: what could 'air-thing' be but 'breath' or 'sky'?

47. f. HA-¿E ("air-voice), loud speech"), N aio, 'to thank'; cf. (IE *5. a(:)i-, 'important speech'); (S e [for ê], 'speak (imperfect stem)' - J. 574); (E j [ *jj {?}], 'say, utterance [magical spell]'; RATIONALE: the additonal air used in loud speech is being identified.

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HO ("sun, lion), orange, fall upon/across"), N !û, 'charge (of animals), approach threateningly'; v. infra 48. b.; cf. (S u-4 (for û-4), 'sun' - J. 684); RATIONALE: the sun resembles a lion in color; accordingly, the lion's behavior could be associated with the sun.

HO-RO(¿E)

star-large(-like)

v. infra 48. b.

cf.

*o:ri

*3. er-

ul-4

ûl-4

hr.w

RATIONALE

HO-RHE(¿E)

lion-fall [upon](-like)

ari(-)b

cf.

**o:ri-

*o:riwa:n-

O:rio:n

ûr

RATIONALE

par excellence

HO-MHA

push-(right) hand

‡òm

‡òm-i

!om-mi

cf.

*o(:)mə-

ama-

umbin

digit

RATIONALE

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HHE(-RHA)/(-FA> ("smoke[-color][COLOR FORMANT]), come up from [under][orange-red][red]"), N ‡i:, 'come out of, sprout' (possibly HHE-HHE dissimilated to HHE-¿E or just HHE-¿E to begin with — because of the long vowel and also the vowel quality; |î, 'to, towards, in the direction of (postposition)'; |ari(-)b, 'carrot [orange one]; |awa / |api, 'red'; v. infra IE]'); cf. (IE as 'smoke', only discernible in color roots: *3. e(:)i-, 'reddish'; *e(:)r-, '*red', listed under e/e:rebh-, 'dark-red'; *1. ei- (for *e:i- (Old Prussian e:it, 'goes'), 'go, come'; 'go' is actually HE- ¿E); in *e(:)us- [+ SHA, 'condition'], 'burn'; (S i-x (component of ibbi), 'smoke' - J. 339; i-10, 'come out' - J. 684 + J. 410 [as opposed to i, 'go out' - J. 270); (E in jj, 'come'); RATIONALE: 'coming up from under' is a description of what we experience visually when someone/something approaches.

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HHA(-P?FA) ("water[prominence), water[-bank/shore]"); N possibly !â:, 'butcher ['bleed {?}']'); â, 'drink'; !a:(-)b, 'saliva'; ||a:, 'wash'; |â, 'wet'; in |ai, 'bespatter', in |aⁿ-|aⁿ, 'water (verb)', cf. (IE in *9. aw(e)-, 'sprinkle, dampen, flow'; in a(:)b- [for a(:)bh-], 'water, river [really bank, shore]'; in *2. a/a:p-, 'water, river'; in a:pero-, 'bank'; *adu-, *ad-ro- [for *a(:)du-, *a(:)d-ro- {T?O-FA/RO, 'lump-SET/part=two banks/bank'}],'water-course'; v. infra 19. a. and 19. aa.); (S a [for â], 'water' - J. 949; ab/p [for âp], 'sea[-shore/river-bank]' - J. 222); (E jb, 'to be thirsty, wish[, {go to }water-bank = thirst]'; in jtr.w, '[two] river[-banks]'); RATIONALE: water and the activities associated with it: drink, wash, thirst.

50. a. HHA-¿E ("water-like), reflective, bright"); N |ae/i-s, 'fire'; cf. (IE *4. a/a:i-, 'burn, light'; in *a/a:ye(-)r/n-, 'day, morning', v. infra 50 c.); (S e-3 (for ê-3), 'shine' - J. 684 + J. 410); RATIONALE: reflectivity equated with brightness.

50. b. HHA-FHA/¿E/RHE(-¿E) ("water-SMALL DEFINITE ANIMATE PLURAL/like/rain[-like]), small amount of water{, watery, liquid, irrigation canal]/rain puddle[, mud{dy}]"); N !ao, 'moisten'; ao(-)sen, au(-)sen [-sen is a Nama reflexive formant], 'to sweat'; |u:(-)b / |u:(-)s, 'urine, faeces [water]'; !âu(-)s, 'cloud [rain-cloud]' ; ||au(-)b, 'fish [creature of the water]'; |uri, 'become dirty, grubby, soiled [, muddy]', cf. (IE *9. aw(e)-, 'sprinkle, dampen, flow'); (IE *w_eryo-, 'muck', listed under *9. a(:)w(e)-, 'sprinkle, dampen, flow'); (S e [for ê], 'irrigation ditch' - J. 574); (E probably in jwH, 'moisten'; + K?XE, 'empty {out}'); RATIONALE: water and the activities associated with it: drink, wash.

50. bb. HHA-FHA-¿E ("pull out-SMALL DEFINITE ANIMATE PLURAL-like), amount of water"),; N |au(-)b, 'dew, spring, fountain'; |awi / |âpi, 'rain'; awe / ape, 'become damp, humid, clammy'; |ao, 'to milk', cf. (IE first component in in *9. a(:)w(e)-, 'sprinkle, dampen, flow'); RATIONALE: water and the activities associated with it: drink, wash.

50. c. HHA(-¿E)-RA(-¿E) ("water=reflective[-like]-color[-like]), water/reflective [reflective][bright]"),; N in ||ari, 'morning'; in ||are, 'left' [facing the midday sun, east is to the left]; cf. (IE *er- (for *a(:)r-), 'color root', listed incorrectly under e/e:reb(h)- [for HHE-RA — 'smoke-color' = 'red'], in words for dark red, brownish hues; *a(:)ri- in Greek ê:ri, 'in the morning', listed under a/a:ier, 'day, morning'; *a(:)ri- in Greek aristerós, 'left', listed incorrectly under *1. ar-, 'fit together, fit'; *a/a:ye(-)r/n-, 'day, morning'; misanalyzed as an *r/*n-stem); (S ar [for âr], 'shine, illuminate, boast, fame, praise, be distinguished - J. 800); RATIONALE: water reflects light, and on occasion, quite brightly.

(51)

HHO(-NHA); ("go under, hibernate, die[-INCEPTIVE]) die[, be about to die = be killed/destroyed"), N ||o:, 'to die [descend]'; cf. (IE *2. o:, interjection, of disapproval [Lithuanian o, interjection of blame]; in *ol(e)- [for *o:lə-

*o:la:-], 'destroy'); (S u-3 [for û-3], 'sleep' - J. 805; in hul-3 [for ul-3], 'destroy'- J. 452); (E in h3[j], 'come down, go down, descend; flag, fail, cease'); RATIONALE: descent — a euphemism for death and failure and destruction.

(52)

PHE; ("mouse/thin) slender"), N |ui, 'slim, slender, thin', cf. (IE probably first element in *3. a. pel-, 'fold [make thin]'; first element in *pol-wo-, 'pale, ashen', listed under *6. pel-, 'gray'); (S be-4 [for bi-6], 'to deduct, remove, diminish, reduce' - J. 5); (E first element in pn.w, 'mouse'); RATIONALE: both color and contour have been projected from the mouse.

(53)

PHA-RO(-¿E); ("-depression-raise[-like]) raise from vagina[, be born]"), N aro, 'male, manly[, youthful]'; aro, 'rocking carry on the arms', cf. (IE *D. per-, 'bear, bring forth[, animal young]', listed under *2. per-, 'lead over across'); (S bal, 'unload [bring out of hold]' - J. 10); (E per.j, 'come out of, bring forth'; pr.j.j, 'hero, champion[, youth]'); RATIONALE: successful birth, infant, has been expanded to youth(ful vigor).

(54)

PHO(-HHA) ("venomous snake[water]) snake[alcoholic beverage, drinker]"); N |ao(-b), 'snake'; in a: [+ HHA, 'water'], 'drink [alcoholic beverages]', cf. (IE in ser(-)p-, 'creep{, slither]'; ser- is *1. ser-, 'move quickly and powerfully' {SA-RHE}; in this root, **pe- has been combined with ser- to produce serp-, 'slithering venomous snake'; and then been applied to the snake's method of movement; *2. po:(i)-, 'drink [

bubbling water]'); (S bu, 'snake' - J. 675); (E f, '*snake [Gardiner I19, with which f is written, portrays a hornviper]); RATIONALE: this terminology refers to the swelling of the head area in some venomous snakes during threat mode.

(55)

PHFE(-FHA)(-RHE); ("spark(s)[-SET]{-fall]) fire[, sparks][shower of aparks=fire"]), N |ae(-)s, 'fire', cf. (IE *pewo:r- [for *p(h)e:wa:r-, 'fire'); (S pi-5 [for pî-5], '*spark [sign reads pi-5, and means 'flash'] - J. 339; pi-5 [for pî-5], 'ignite' - J. 339); (E ); RATIONALE: along with smoke, sparks are the usual accompaniment of a fire.

(56)

PHFA; initial not found yet in Nama

(57)

PHFO; ("elephant/buffalo) elephant/buffalo"), N PKK *|ao, 'buffalo [black wildebeest]', for which Nama has |gao(-b), which is probably QO-FA, cf. (IE ); (S yyy , 'yyy' - J. 000); (E ); RATIONALE: yyy .

(58)

FHE-¿E; ("spider-like, weave"), N |ui(-)s, 'net'; |ûi(-)s, 'fishing net'; cf. (IE *wei- [for *we:i-], '*weave', in Old Indian váyati, 'weaves`, listed under *5. aw-, *awe:-, 'plait, weave'); RATIONALE: the spider taught us to weave.

(59)

FHA ("wolf, wail, wail [wind], blow"), N !oâ(-)b, 'wind'; ‡oa(-)b, 'wind'; !oa, 'mourn, grieve'; ‡oe-‡oe, 'to tease, vex[, cause grief for][, torment {with further formants}]', cf. (IE in *wa(:)i-, interjection, 'woe!'; in *10. a(:)w(e)-, 'blow, breathe' - [compounded with HA-, 'air']); (S u-4, [ for û-4] 'weather, storm' - J. 684); A in hawâ?un, 'air'; hauwâ, 'blow [wind]'); RATIONALE: the wolf wails like the storm-wind.

(60)

FHO; ("hare) hare"), N !ôa(-)s, 'hare'; cf. (IE ); (S possibly wu [for wû], 'hare {?}' - J. 688); (E *w, 'hare [Gardiner E34, 'desert hare', usually read wn]); (BASQUE untxi, 'rabbit [un, 'hare' + -txi, diminutive]'); RATIONALE: the animal who 'hears' (FO) because of its outsized ears.

(61)

THE(-¿E)(-RHE) ("star(-like)) shine(morning)(bright)"), N in tse(-)s, 'day'; cf. (IE in te:ra:, 'star', listed under *2. ste:/er-); (S in dir-2 , [sign reads dir-2, and means 'bright, flecked, blue'] - J. 191; dir-3, 'heaven' [sign reads dir-3, and means 'heaven'] - J. 14); (E probably in dw3 [for *dj3], 'rise early'; in d3.t [for *dj3.t], 'morning, netherworld {the night sky}' [the triliteral used for dw3 {for dj3 is Gardiner N14, which depicts a star}]); RATIONALE: the sun was classified as a star along with the stars of the night.

(62)

THA; ("be in stationary movement at the side) engender"), N -ta,'I (nom. masc. and fem.)'; -ta, 'my (masc. and fem.)'; -te [

ta+i=te], 'me (acc. masc. and fem.)'; -tî [

ta+i=tî], 'I/me (nom/acc. masc. and fem.)'; in tawa, 'at, with, near [+ FHA, 'surround']', cf. (IE in ati, ato-, 'out and over something, therefore, for a movement directed at the speaker, finslly, simply 'hither'; interestingly, PIE prefers the inanimate equivalent *de-, *do-, demonstrative root, partially I-deictic, [for references to the side of the speaker [T?A]); (S yyy , 'yyy' - J. 000); (E ); RATIONALE: to be in stationary movement at the side is to be nearby.

(63)

THO(-FHA)(-RO); ("tribe/assemblage[-member][FREQUENTATIVE][to a high degree]) tribe(-member), assemble[, organize][, put/stay in order]"), N in -tì, feminine plural marker in nouns; toro, 'to spin (cord/string by rolling strands together)'; toro(-)b, 'war, warband [swirling compact mass]', cf. (IE *-(n)t, third person verbal suffix, singular and plural, common gender; -*ti/u, collective); in *te:u- [for *teu- {sic!}], 'swell [through collection or assemblage]; *1. twer-, 'turn, whirl{ around a center as an assemblage}, vibrate[, any kind of lively movement'; in *twer-m-, 'squad, warrior', listed under foregoing *1. twer-); (S -d, collective, in (n)g[~]³ud, '[herd of] cattle' from (n)g[~]³u-4, 'bull'; du-3 , 'all' - J. 454; du-7, 'complete' - J. 786; possibly dul, 'enclose; overpower, thrw down' - J. 809); (E -.t, collective (and feminine); in t(w).t, 'full, entire, complete' [N.B. this may be a simple reduplication: {*tt}; twr, 'cleanse [swirl around in water]; show respect [by circling around in attendance]'); RATIONALE: a tribe is composed of clans that are not necessarily living contiguously; for the 'tribe' to form, the clans must assemble. This seems to imply that tribes are political rather than ethnic constructions. The tribe-members are in motion around a center of gravity, and maintain their cohesion.

THO-MHO

approach-to a high degree

tom

cf.

*2. te/e:m-

*tem(ə)-

tum

dum

RATIONALE

complete

THO-NHA(-¿E)

approach-INCEPTIVE[-like]

tani

cf.

*1. tel- / *telə- / *tle:(i)- / *tla:-

du-5-la-2

lower pivot

tnj

Tnj

*tnj

RATIONALE

THO-QHA

heat-shrivel

tan

cf.

*2. tenk-

RATIONALE

THO-RO(-FA)

expand-part[-FREQUENTATIVE]

tara(-)s

cf.

*ter(-)u-

*2. ter-

tur

tul-4

*dul-x

dulu

dulû

rnpt

rnpt.j

rnpt

rnpt.j

RATIONALE

(64)

THSE(-FHA)(-¿E)/(-NA) ("spread out, bristle(-FREQUENTATIVE)(-like)/(-thing)) bristle(, puncture through)(, puncturing)/(prolonged sound=song)"), N tsau(-)b, 'well, bore-hole'; in tswi, 'wound'; tse:-, 'day['shimmering']'; ; tsana(-s), 'song (sacred/profane)', cf. (IE *1. (s)teu- (for *[s]t(h)e(:)u-) (with consonantal extensions), 'push, beat, pierce` (cf. Welsh twll, 'perforated'; *3. twei-, 'excite, move back and forth, shake[, twinkle, shimmer]'; *1. (s)ten- [for *(s)t(h)e(:)n-], of loud noises, 'groan'); (S ze/i, 'cut, remove, erase, be troubled' - J. 130; zu-2 (for zû-2 or zü-2, 'point of a battering ram, tooth (better 'fang') - J. 15; possibly i(-)zin, 'festival', if from ¿A-THSE-NA, 'many-song(s): šir-4, another reading for the same sign, has the meaning 'sing' - J. 281); (E possibly Dwy, 'evil', if 'wounding'; this word may be contrasted with Dw, 'evil, sad'; probably in DnDn, 'be angry [, be loud]'); RATIONALE: bristles and quills were associated with the idea of puncture but also spreading out, interpreted temporally: prolong (time/sound).

(65)

THSA; ("ass, rear up) stand"), N -ts, 'you (nom. sing.); in -tsi, 'you (acc. sing.)'; in sá(-ts)/(-s), 'thou (masculine/feminine)', base for inclusivity (SHO) + masculine THSA, 'standing' / feminine SHA, 'immobile, not standing, sitting'; cf. (IE -*t(h), second person verbal suffix); (S ta-2 [dialectal for ES *za-x], 'be high' - J. 629; za, second person pronoun - J. 957); RATIONALE: the idea here seems to be that the person addressed is ssen as standing to differentiate him/herself from other speech participants, who are visualized as sitting.

THSA-HA(-MHO)/FHA

elongate-STATIVE(-to a high degree)/FREQUENTATIVE

tsâ

tsam

tsau

cf.

*ta:-

*ta:m-

*t(h)a:m-

*ta:-

RATIONALE

THSA-FHA/NA

elongate-FREQUENTATIVE/thing

tsowá

cf.

*ta:u-

*ta:-

*t(h)a:-

RATIONALE

THSA-RHE

[like an] ass-come

initial not found yet in Nama

cf.

tärïn

*2. ter-

torno-s

*t(h)a(:)rno-

tar~nas

*2. ter-

*tre:mo-

trim

trima

*2. ter-

D3m.w

D3n.w

RATIONALE

(66)

THSO(-FHA)(-RHE)(-FHA); ("circling insect=circling[-FREQUENTATIVE][-come {down}][-FREQUENTATIVE]) circling insect[, circling, spinning][turn/twirl around][throw]"), N in tso(:)re(:), 'become weak, faint [spinning head]'; tso(:)ro(:), 'sow, strew, scatter (throw)'; cf. (IE in *tin- (for *t(h)(e)i-n-) in Latin tinea, 'moth', listed incorrectly under ta:-, '(s)melt'; *1. twer- (for *t(h)(w)e(:)r-), 'turn, whirl, vibrate'; treu- (for *t(h)re(:)u-), 'throw', listed incorrectly under *3.ter-, 'rub⁶ . . . turn'); (S tu-8, '*gnat [sign reads tu-8, and means 'gnat'] - J. 777; tu-2 (for tû-2), 'storm [cyclone] [sign reads tu-2 and means 'storm']' - J. 684; tur-5, 'sickness [spinning head]' - J. 99; tur, 'uncontrolled' - J. 273; tur-5, '*storm-flood [sign reads tur-5, and means 'storm-flood']'; tur-6, '*turn [sign reads tur-6, and depicts a circle]'); (E 'w, 'interpreter [around-turner]'; in '3m, 'throwstick'); RATIONALE: the motion of a circling insect has been projected to circular movement in general.

(67)

SHE(-¿E)/FHA; ("separate one's self-like/FREQUENTATIVE) leave by one's self/separate one's self completely=let loose"), N sí(-ts)/(-s), 'thou (masculine/feminine)', base for exclusivity — masculine THSA, 'standing'; feminine SHA, 'immobile, not standing, sitting';; sî, 'go away'; sî, 'to send, dispatch'; in siⁿ, 'send'; sâu(-)i, 'grass seeds (stored by ants)[what has been let loose by the plant]', cf. (IE *2. se:(i)-, 'send out, throw, let fall, sow, alongside of relax, release, delay (late, slow, longlasting), relaxation, rest, sinking down, on the other hand, stick out the hand towards, string, strength'; s(e)we-, 'to one side, separated, for one's self', listed under se-); *sewʳ-, su:-, 'let [one'self] loose'); (S še-13 (for ši-13 or šî-13, 'go' [sign reads še-13, and means 'go'] - J. 410; possibly in šiš, 'protect [if 'send away']') - J. 622); (E sj (for zj), 'shuffle'; s(j)s(j) (for zjzj), 'hurry'; probably in js [for j{-}z{j}], 'go!' — Old Egyptian had a j-prefix for weak imperatives); RATIONALE: the usually solitary hunting behavior of the jackal was equated with singularity or solitude and separating something from something or leaving someone to achieve them.

SHE(-NA)

separate (some)one's self-(thing)

s(é[:])n-

cf.

*se(:)-

*se(:)ni

a(-)š[î]

RATIONALE

(68)

SHA(-¿E)(-MO) ("pig[-like]{-high degree}) immobile, satisfied[satisfying]{very}=honey"); N -s, 'she (nom).'; -si, 'her (acc.)'; -s, feminine singular nominal ending; sâ, 'to rest'; in saⁿ, 'rest'; sâm, 'take out honey'; cf. (IE sa:-, 'full, satisfy'; in *sa:imo-;, in OHG seim, 'strained honey', listed incorrectly under sei-, 'drip, run, wet'; perhaps in sen-, 'make ready, work out, complete, aim at', if all are semantically 'be satisfied'); (S sa-2 (for sâ-2), 'be equal to [satisfy the conditions, requirements of]' - J. 807; in sim-2 [for sêm-2], '*bee-hive, *honey' [sign reads sim-2, and depicts a bee-hive between two swarms of bees] - J. 322); (E in z.t, 'it' [originally feminine *z + common t]; in *zm [for zjm], '*bee-hive' [Egyptian F36, 'lung and windpipe', depicts rather a 'hive on branch']); RATIONALE: immobility is equated with satisfaction.

SHA(-¿E)

immobile[-like]

but also

cf.

*sa:i-

, the equivalent we would expect in not attested; however, Gardiner G39, pintail-duck', currently read z3, I believe it represents earlier zj3, PL SHA-¿E-RHA, 'sated-bird', for reasons I explain at SHA; as *z/s3, it is used in s3j, 'linger, await; be satisfied, be sated; be wise, prudent [cautious]'; and in s3 'weak'; I believe all these are misleading spellings [for us] with 3 being no more than a mater lectionis for a lengthened preceding vowel; if we read zj[:] for the words above, we have a perfect correspondence with the range of meanings theorized for SHA-¿E); RATIONALE: since the core meaning is 'immobile', this term can also to be applied to 'satisfied' and 'cautious/wise' and 'paralyzed/weak/lazy'.

(69)

SHO ("member [of herd animals — implies but does not specify 'female' proper, which is SHA], clan(-member), relative, female (only implied) = she [pers. pro.], follow[er]"), N sá(-ts)/(-s), 'thou (masculine/feminine)', base for inclusivity — masculine THSA, 'standing'; feminine SHA, 'immobile, not standing, sitting'; in so:|ôa(-)i, 'medicine [good water]', cf. (IE *so(:), third person nominative singular pronoun ['clan-member']; -*s, second 'person' singular verbal ending; *swe- [from *s^we-

swe-, 'same (clan)' = 'good'; in *swe(-)sor-, 'sister' [SHO-SHA-RO, 'clan-female (attached to a given place)-adult' = 'clan-adult female (resident female)'; cf. Sumerian sal, 'female']; *su-/*su:-, 'well, good' {normally, we would expect IE *u to represent earlier *w but is this case, the glide [*^w) from the Pontic stage of development [*s^h^wu] seems to have been vocalized without the aspiration lengthening the vowel though it may have in those PIE-derived languages which have *su:-); (S si-6 [for sû-x], '[sheep]-herd' - J. 894; J.893 and J. 894 are very similar in cuneiform; su-5, which is a recognized and appropriate reading for J. 893 (SO), has been mistakenly disconnected from J. 894, where it would represent SHO); (E s(j), 'clan{-member}[-like] = female clan-member' = third person feminine singular personal pronoun - 'she'; -s [for *-sj], third person feminine singular possessive suffix, 'her'); the earlier third person feminine personal pronoun, *z (SHA, has been re-assigned to the common or neuter as z.t, 'it'; in swn.w [for *s(-)jwn.w], 'physician [good-water-AGENTIVE'); RATIONALE: a sheep herd moves as a unit like a clan. Clan membership is the automatic certification of 'goodness'. The ewes (and lambs), the hwerd per se, follow the ram as the clan follows its leader. Contrastingly, the tribe consists of a number of separately moving clans who periodically assemble.

SHO-FHA

follow-FREQUENTATIVE

sao

cf.

*3. seu-

*so(:)u-

šuwai-

Savitár-

sauru

su-8

sû-8

su-8-ba

sû-8-pâ-2

pâ-2

PHFA

n(j)-sw.t

RATIONALE

(70) KHE(-?A)(-¿E)/(-FHA) ("shadow(-STATIVE)(-like)/(-FREQUENTATIVE), dark grey[grey][, become completely gray, dirty]"), N in ‡kai, 'dark'; in !kuwi, 'make a fire'; kôu, 'smear', cf. (IE in *2. k^ei-, 'dark'; in *2. k^e(:)u-, 'illuminate, bright [perhaps surprisingly, the idea here is not 'bright' but 'brighten', i.e. 'lighten from black to gray']', same root as *2. k^e:u-, 'ignite, burn up'. in Greek kaío:, 'ignite, catch fire ['start to burn, become gray']; *[s]k^a:i- [for *[s]k^eá:i-], 'dimly shimmer'; *1. k^wei-, 'mud, filth, make dirty'); (S gi-6-gi-6, [for gî-6-gî-6] 'black' - 2x J. 770); E kk (for *kjkj [?]), 'be dark'); RATIONALE: the shadow is associated with moderate darkness.

(71) KHA(-¿E)(-NA), ("desire fervently-like-thing) desire{, want to own]{, greed]"), N Proto-Khoe ka, 'wish, want'; ‡kiⁿ, 'be content'; cf. (IE k^an- (for *kyan-) in Old Indian cánas-, 'pleasure, satisfaction', listed under ka:-, 'like, desire': N.B. Avestan činah-, 'desire'); (S ga, cohortative prefix [really volitive] - J. 594; ga[-]na, 'come on!' - J. 348 + J. 949); (E in Hn.t [for *kjn.t], 'greed'; in Hn.t.y [for kjn.t.y], 'be greedy, covetous'; in k3, 'think about, plan, plot'; sDm.k3.f verbal form, volitive); RATIONALE: the goat is associated with lust and immodeate desire.

(72) KHO(-FHA)(-MA)/(-FA)(-¿E); ("child, cover[-FREQUENTATIVE][-mound]/[-SET]{-like]) cover[, cover up][, scab, covering of sny kind/child{ren}[-like = sibling{s}]"), N in ‡komi, 'seed(-coat?, -shell?)'; kûi(-b)/(-s), 'brother/sister [= 'sibling']'; cf. (IE -kó, diminutive suffix; *(s)keum-, 'scum', derived from *2. (s)keu-, 'cover, envelop'); (S gu-2 e-3, 'be covered with' - J. 171 [+ J. 684 + J. 410]; gu-5, 'covering [sign reads gu-5, and means 'be clothed, clothing']' - J. 893; in gum-2, 'scab' - J. 935; in gumuš, '*covering [sign reads gumuš, and means 'be clothed, clothing']' - J. 893); (E perhaps in Tms [if *Twms), 'be besmeared'); RATIONALE: children are covered and protected throughout the mammalian world.

KHO-RHE

small-TRANFORMATIVE

‡kari

cf.

*4. (s)ker-

RATIONALE

KHO-NA

small-thing

!kani

cf.

*3. ken-

Tnr

RATIONALE

(73)

KHXE(-¿E)(-NA), ("deer[-like][-thing]) deer(, fast)(, fast one = deer, worker"); N -kx, masculine suffix; ||kxâⁿ, 'jump up'; in ‡kxan-i, 'eland'; |kxi:, 'to come, arrive'; |kxe:, 'astute, sagacious, shrewd [if = fast]', cf. (IE *ke:i- (for *k^(h)e:i-), 'set in movement, be in movement'; *4. ken- [for *k^(h)e(:)n-], 'busy one's self, strive ardently, spout' , and Greek egkonís, 'servant-woman`; i.e. 'runner`); (S ke-6 [for kî-x], 'hurry' [sign reads ke-6, and means 'hurry'] - J. 410); (E in Hnw.tjj [for Hjnw.tjj], 'servant'); RATIONALE: the deer is a common symbol for speed.

KHXE-¿E

deer-like

|kxê

cf.

*k^e:(i)-

*k^(h)e:i-

RATIONALE

KHXE-?A/RO

deer-STATIVE/part

‡kxâ

‡kxâ(-)b

‡kxâ(-)s

top

cf.

*k^er-

*k^(h)e(:)r-

kiri-3

kil

Hr.w

RATIONALE

KHXE-FHA(-¿E)

deer-FREQUENTATIVE(-like)

‡kxoi

!kxoe

cf.

*ky-eu-

*k^(h)ewi-

ke:i

Hwj

RATIONALE

KHXE-RE

deer=fast-cause to be

|kxare

cf.

*2. k^ers-

*2. k^(h)ers-

kar(a)

kar(a)-2

kiri-2

*kir(i)-x

KHXE-RE

H3H3

RATIONALE

KHXE-FA(-¿E)

deer-color

albinistic

dama dama

cast

Levant

t3 nTr

'Golden Deer'

initial not found yet in Nama

cf.

*2. k^eu-

*k^(h)e:/eu-

kug

küg[~]²[i]

silver

Hw.w

RATIONALE

vice versa

(74^j)

KHXA(-KHXA)/(-?A)/(-FHA)(-¿E)(-RE) ("hurt[REDUPLICATION], [all] hurt [filled with hurt][, hurtfully injured][, hurtful][, cause to be hurt]": HURT), N ||kxâu, 'shoot with an arrow, sting (bee)'; !kxa:, 'to stab, pierce (?)'; ‡kxawa, 'to quarrel, brawl; bad'; !kxau, 'cough'; !kxau, 'to be mad, insane ['irrationally crying out in pain']'; ||kxi:, 'to pinch, nip [produce a stinging sensation]'; in Proto-Khoe-khoe ||kxara, 'cut off, amputate[, punish {mutilation is merely the method}']'); in ||kxaro, 'hurt'; kxo(:)wo, 'to rain a little [beat down]', cf. (IE in kha(:) kha(:), interjection of laughing; *ka:u- [for *k[h]a(:)u-], 'beat, hew[, hurt'; in ka/a:u(ə)(-)la:, '[painful] boil/tumor'; in *1. ka(:)r- [for *k(h)a(:)r-], rebuke, punish'); (S ); (E Hw [possibly also Hj], 'beat, thresh'); probably in HnHn.t [for HwnHwn.t {?}], '[painful] swelling'); RATIONALE: while the PIE form suggests onomatopeia, the Nama form does not.

KHXA(-FHA)(-¿E)(-RE)

bee-sting, hurt[-like][-FREQUENTATIVE]

HEAT

kxou

||kxai(-)s

||kxôasa

-sa

SHA

cf.

*3. ka:i-

*2. k^e:u-

*k(h)ye:u-

ku-3

kû-3

RATIONALE

KHXA-?A(-FHA)/[-NA]/[-RE]

bee, burn-STATIVE[-FREQUENTATIVE]/[-thing]/[-cause to be]

GLOW

||kxa:(-)b

kxau

|kxâu

||kxaro

!kxaì(-)b

cf.

*ka(:)nd-

N.B.

hánë

*3. ker(ə)-

*k(h)a(:)r-

*kerbero-

*k(h)a(:)bero-

*k^erbero-

N.B.

Sárvara

*2. k^eu-

*k(h)(y)a(:)u-

a-su:iri-

*(s)ka:i-

*(s)k(h)a:i-

kan[a]-3[/5/6]

again

ku-3

kû-3

RATIONALE

KHXA-(-FHA)(-NA)(-HHA)(-¿E)(-QHE)

bee[-completely][-thing = 'hive'][-water = honey

YELLOW

‡kxâi-b

[pale] yellow

kxoi-i

kxoe(-b)/(-s), kxoi(-b)/(-s)

|kxoe

!kxon

cf.

*_enəkó-

*k(h)enə-kó

*k(h)a:na:-(n)k^ó

ku-7

kû-7

kukku

kukki

Hnq.t

RATIONALE

(75)

KHXO(-¿E)(-FHA); ("mollusc[-shell]=sharp[-like][-FREQUENTATIVE]), cut [or scrape] with a sharp edge{, cut [or scrape] off]"), N !kxai, 'to chop, axe, fell'; ||kxò:, 'bury (after scraping out a grave)'; kxao, 'to dig'; ||kxào, 'scratch off, polish, clean something of hair or dirt with a knife [or mollusc-shell as a strigil]'; kxo:-b, 'pelt, skin [what is cut off']'; cf. (IE *(s)ke:/ei- [for *k(h)o(:)i-], 'cut, separate, part'; *6. (s)ke:u- [for (*s)k(h)o:u-)], listed under *6. (s)ke:u-(t-), 'cut, separate, score, poke, hunt about'; *2. k^eu- (for k(h)yo(:)u-), 'shine, bright, *clean', in Armenian srbem, 'cleanse, make holy` {k^eu-bh-ro [for *k(h)you-bh-ro}, and Sanskrit Súndhati, 'cleanses' {k^eu-n-dh- [for *k(h)you-n-dh-]}); *k^euk- [for *k(h)youk(h)], 'shine, bright, be white, glow', in Sanskrit Sukti-, 'mussel'; possibly in (*s)ku/u:-ti- {for (*s)k(h)ou-ti-}, 'skin', listed incorrectly under *2. (s)keu-, 'cover, envelop']); (S ku-6, '(shell-)fish' - J. 961); (E in xwd/D.w, 'class of fisherman'; xw, 'protect, exclude, set aside, avoid, prevent, exempt'; sxw, 'slaughterhouse'); RATIONALE: the mollusc shell provided an early sharp cutting edge.

KHXO-FHA

mollusc-shell-SET

‡kxu

!kxù

cf.

ku-3

kua

xwd

RATIONALE

KHXO-FHA

open-FREQUENTATIVE

kxowa

cf.

*6. ske:u-(t-)

*[s]k(h)o:u-

RATIONALE

KHXO-RO/FA

mollusc shell=cut-INTENSIVE/SET

||kxo(:)ra

kxo(:)ra

||kxu:(-)b

kxuru

cf.

*4.(s)ker-

*4.(s)k(h)o(:)r-

*[s]k(h)woy-

gul

kul-2

^G[~]IŠ

xr.w

xr.w.y.w/t

RATIONALE

KHXO-RHE

cut out of-fall

make hole [for evacuation]+(let} [fall]=release faeces

|kxari

cf.

*[s]ker-(d-)

*[s]k(h)o(:)re(:)-

cf.

skô:r

RATIONALE

(76)

XHE(-HA)(-FHA)(-¿E); ("pay attention[-STATIVE][-FREQUENTATIVE]) pay attention[, be alert][, understand][, wise]"); v. infra 76. a., cf. (IE *keu- [

*k^^wa:wy- {dissimilation and depalatization} - cf. Sanskrit kaví-, 'smart, wise`; Greek koéo:, 'notice, hear`]; *skeu-, heavy basis *ke:u-, 'pay attention to (observe, watch), then hear, feel, notice'); (S šag[~]²-4 [

*šâg[~]²{i}-x: dissimilation], 'heart, mind' - J. 689); (E possible in šw(j).ty, 'trader [clever {?}]'); RATIONALE: the alertness we have when we are frightened (bristling body hair) was applied to non-fear-inspired alertness.

XHE-(-¿E)/-FHA-RHE

puncture-[-like]-FREQUENTATIVE-TRANSFORMATIVE

xai

xoa

xoro

cf.

*kweyə-

*k^^weyə-

*s k^e:u-

[for *k^^we(:)wa(:)-

⁽¹⁰⁾

*6. s ke:u-

[for *k^^we(:)wa(:)-

⁽¹⁰⁾

*k^wer-

*k^^we(:)r-

*k^^we(:)wer-

⁽¹⁰⁾

kiáuras

*6. ske:u-

poke

*skwerb(h)-

*[s]k^^we(:)rb(h)-

*sk(h)woy-

*[s]k^^woy-

šul

šw3

RATIONALE

(77)

XHA(-¿E)(-NA) ("fish, pack together tightly (intr.)[-like][-thing]) pack together tightly [(tr.)][squeeze]"), N xa:, 'to attack, assault [to mobm swarm over]'; xâi, 'to swell [by being packed on top]'; xai, 'to crush, pulverize [pack together tightly]'; xan, 'to gird too tighly, choke', cf. (IE *k^wei- [for *2. k^wa(:)ei-], 'stack up, agglomerate, collect, pile'); (S he [for hê, 'abundance' - J. 715); (E possibly in š3j [for *šj], 'bundle [?][better: 'pile'] of flax'); RATIONALE: as fish are tightly packed together in a school, a tight pile of objects or material was similarly characterized.

77. a. XHA ("very large indefinite animate plural ), who?"), N in xu:-, '(some)thing', cf. (IE ); (S -ha, collective - J. 961); (E ); RATIONALE: in Nama, animate quantity substituted for inanimate quantity in indefinite pronouns.

77. b. XHA-RE ("groove-scratch, decorate by scratching a design or pattern"), N xara [also xana / xora], 'scratch (and leave a mark)', cf. (IE k^wer-, 'make, shape, [, design, decorate]'; (S hur [for har], 'scratch, draw' - J. 723); (E possibly in š3š3.t, 'necklace'); RATIONALE: the earliest decoration was probably grooves/lines cut/scratched on objects of daily use.

77. c. XHA-MHO ("swallow/gasp-overall, munch, swallowing noisily and fast"), N xam, 'to munch', cf. (IE k^wem-, 'guzzle, swallow'; (E probably in šm', 'barley of Upper Egypt [barley was the principal ingredient of Egyptian beer'); RATIONALE: the idea here seems to be repeated quick swallowing like a gasping fish out of water; and this is associated with guzzling — a world not too unlike our own.

77. d. XHA ("press together, and"), N xa, 'from, of, by, about (postposition)', cf. (IE k^we-, 'and'; (S - J. 000); (E ); RATIONALE: pressing together makes an association.

(78)

XHO; ("frog/pouch-like) swelling"), N xâi, 'to swell', cf. (IE *2. k^wei-, 'build up'); (E possibly in X3.t, 'corpse'); RATIONALE: swell up like a frog/toad.

(79)

MHE; initial not found yet in Nama

(80)

MHA; ("ant, ceaselessly active, hold [in [right] palm] [right palm of ]hand, give [better: offer to]"), N mà, 'give'; ma:, 'give', cf. (IE *ma(:)n-, in Latin manus, 'hand', listed under mə(-)r,'hand'; ma:- 'wave with the hand'); (E in mn 'palm(full)' in phrase: mn jr.y, 'sample [palmfull]); RATIONALE: thr right hand is used for activitie that are not impure, and so is greatly more active than the left; offering on the palm is a common way of 'giving'.

(81)

MHO; initial not found yet in Nama

(82)

NHE(-¿E), ("slide through[-like] flow[flowing]"), N ||ne:, 'talk a lot, chatter'; !nâ:, 'pour out', cf. (IE *le:-, root for sounds, listed under *1. la:-; *4. le:i-, 'pour out, flow, drip'); (S li-2, 'oil, fat, cream, flow out' - J. 456); (E probably in nj.w, 'primeval waters'); RATIONALE: the sinuous motion of the worm above ground is compared with the sinuous flow of water being poured out; and pouring out is, in turn, equated with chatter.

NHE(-¿E)/FHA

slack{en}[-like]/FREQUENTATIVE

||nà

||noa

nôa

cf.

*3. le:(i)-

*le:u-

*2. leu-

li-2

nny

RATIONALE

NHE-HHO(-¿E)

worm-move under[-like]

nî(:)

lî

cf.

*3. le:(i)-

RATIONALE

(83)

NHA-FHA/RHA ("be hidden(-FREQUENTATIVE)/bird) be hidden(-hide away/duck"), N in ‡na(:)wa, 'hide'; ||noa, 'trap, to set trap[ hide a trap]'; ‡na(:)ra(:)(-s), 'duck [duck under-bird]', cf. (IE *2. la:-, 'be hidden, concealed'; in *la:u-, '*hidden', based on Greek *la:-wós, 'hidden', listed under *2. la:-; *la:u-, 'capture, bag[, trap]'); (S lu-3 [for lû-3], 'cover completely' - J. 642); (E in nw / njw, 'ostrich [bird that hides its head in the sand]'; nw, 'hunter [trapper]'); RATIONALE: the (water-)current, although hidden beneath the surface of the water, is in movement.

NHA(-NHA)

move back and forth (inside)-REDUPLICATION

‡na:

na(:)na(:)

cf.

ala:

NHA

ala:la:

lel-

*la:la:

*1. la:-

[a-]la(-la)

happiness

n(y)n(y)

RATIONALE

NHA(-¿E)/-PHFE/FHE

move back and forth (inside)-(-like)-flame/weave

!nâ

na(:)pa(:) / nawa

napa(-b) / nawa(-b)

!nawi

cf.

la:i-

la:p-

cf.

leiptr

la:[i]p

li-2

lê-2

lib

*lêp-x

nbj

RATIONALE

NHA-FHA

move back and forth-FREQUENTATIVE

na(:)u

diving

cf.

RATIONALE

NHA-MHA

move back and forth-hand

||nama

cf.

*2. lem-

*la:m-

cf.

lama:t

lamma

RATIONALE

NHA(-FHA)

move back and forth, vibrate(-FREQUENTATIVE)

*||nâ, '*sound' in ao||nâ, 'to preach, tell'

||nâu

cf.

*1. la:-

la:u-

*3. le:u-

RATIONALE

(84)

NHO(-FHA)(-K?XO) ("deny[-FREQUENTATIVE][-empty]) deny, elude[, slip over/away, lie]"), N perhaps nûi(-)b, 'tapeworm ['elusive']; ‡noa, 'deny (accusations)'; in ‡noagu, 'argue'; nû, lû, 'to swear [falsely {?}]'; ||nôa, 'drag/pull along, haul[, slide over]', cf. (IE *lou- [for *lo(:)u-], 'wash [slide over, scrub''; in *sleub(h)- [for *slo(:)ub(h)-] , 'glide. slip'; *1. leugh- [for *lo:ugh-], 'lie'); (S lu-5 / lulu, 'lie, deceive' - J. 657); (ARABIC lâja [l-w-j], 'deviate'); RATIONALE: empty denial is lying.

(85)

QHE; initial not found yet in Nama

(86)

QHA(-RA)/(¿E) ("hump-back[-like]) hill, high, stone[tall]"), N ‡kâ, 'to lift on the palm, stem upwards'; ‡kâ(-)s, 'elevation'; ||kara, 'large'; ||kara, 'punish, *stone'; in karo, 'to dry out and harden'; kara, 'cool [stiff, hard]'; kai, 'big', cf. (IE *1. ka(:)r-, 'revile, punish ['stone']'; *3. ka(:)r- [for *(n)ka(:)r-], 'hard, *stone'; *kar- [for (n)ka(:)r-], '*height`, in Old Norse horgr, 'heap of stones`, listed under *3. kar-, 'hard'); (S na (for ña), 'high' - J. 114; nar-2 (for *ñar-2) - 'high' - J. 603; ne-6 [for ñî-x], *high [sign reads ne-6 and means 'high'] - J. 114); E q3(3), 'hill, high ground'; q3(.t), height'); RATIONALE: an animal that had an arching back was equated with 'hill'; and 'hill' with 'stone' and 'hard'.

QHA(-FHA)

manure[-FREQUENTATIVE]

‡kawa

cf.

kau-

*(n)ka(:)u-

*kakka

*(n)ka(:)(n)ka(:)

RATIONALE

QHA-RHE

high-cause to become

ka(:)re

cf.

*2. kar-

*(n)ka(:)r-

nar

ñâr

q3(j)

s(-)q3

RATIONALE

(87)

QHO; initial not found yet in Nama

(88)

RHE-FHA ("come/fall-FREQUENTATIVE) come back, return/fall upon"), N in ||a(-)ru[?A, 'family' +], 'to go/return home', cf. (IE *3. reu-, 'hurry'; in *ereu-, 'fall, fall upon'); (S ru , 'walk along, lead away, fall down[, return [sign depicts a boomerang]' - J. 111); (E ); RATIONALE: .

(89)

RHA-RHO; ("color-AUGMENTATIVE) [more] colorful"), N ||a(:)ru, 'speckled, dappled (of goats), paint'; cf. (IE ); (S - J. 000); (E ); RATIONALE: colorful birds were the symbol of color generally.

(90)

RHO-FHA(-RHO-FHA)(-¿E); ("jump-FREQUENTATIVE(-REDUPLICATED)(-like)) jump onto/repeatedly jump on/jumping/lousy"), N in u(:)ri, 'louse, jump', cf. (IE *lu:/us [

*lo:u-s], 'louse'; lo:u-, '*jump, *castrated ram', listed incorrectly under *2. leu-, 'cut off, separate, let loose'); (S lu [for lû], 'wool-bearing animal, goat, sheep, run away' - J. 894); (E ); RATIONALE: although RHO properly belongs to the 'antelope', it has been extended to sheep/goat.

That Nama words are integrally related rather than just arbitrary sequences of sounds is clearly shown by the family deriving from PL HHA, 'water': Nama

|ai, 'bespatter';
|aⁿ-|aⁿ, 'water (verb)';
|awi, 'rain`;
â, 'drink`;
|âm, 'light up, green`;
||a:, 'wash`;
!a:b, 'saliva`;
!â:, 'butcher (bleed)'.

Clearly, also, tone (Hochton
[^] = active verbal as opposed to Mittelton [ ] = or nominal ??? ) and vowel-length (length [:] = secondary semantic usage ??? ) are also playing an important part in differention of the simplex, which is presumably *a, '*water'.

For the sake of simplicity, I have not quoted correspondences from other Khoisan languages but one exception must be made. Although Nama shows a different root, at least seven members of the Khoisan family have a first person plural of i while five have a second person plural of u alternating in another six with i. I have maintained that PL ¿E, 'voice, speaker' and FO, 'ear, hearer', were two of the earliest nouns used for "pronouns" and that they replaced each other in certain social contexts.

I have described this situation in Proto-Language "I" and "You" - Early Evidences of Social Hierarchy, which is, as yet, unpublished. The Khoisan languages demonstrate the appropriateness of this line of thought very spectacularly.

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN NAMA

(not included under lexical headings)

press here to see

**The correspondence of ???+ roots and many formants suffices for a preliminary study to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.**

NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS

For an explanation of the Proto-Language and Indo-European notational conventions
used in these essays, press here.

Nama

?, h

b, p, d, t, g (g^y before e/i), k (k^y before e/i),

w (written o or u but also w intervocalically), s, x,

ts, kx,

m, n, ⁿ,

r

a, e, i, o, u

CLICKS:
| (dental), ! (alveolar)
‡ (palatal), || (alveolar-lateral)
Θ (bilabial) [Nama does not presently have this click]

CLICKS

Stopa (1986)^(c) has shown that 'clicks` are affective rather than phonemic per se, an explanation for them at which I independently arrived.

I will not attempt to propose the specific affects that I believe likely that 'clicks' had on the meaning of roots because I do not have access to the reference materials that would enable a comprehensive proposal to be made.

But I can sketch the outline of what I think will one day be established.

At an early stage, every language confronted the problem of differentiating by some method the components of the broad range of meanings attached to each monosyllabic root, and, to a lesser extent, to *CVC roots.

Most non-KhoiSan languages chose the simple route of adding formants or semantic elements either as prefixes or suffixes: e.g. PL T?SE ('finger') + ¿E ('-like') = T?SE-¿E ('teat').

Though KhoiSan utilized this method of differentiation through suffixation, generally, after a root length of *CVC or *CVi/oC was attained, it made use of prefixation in the form of 'clicks' to serve the same purpose and further refine the meaning conveyed. I am reluctant to consider 'clicks' as phonemes proper since I believe they convey emotional attitudes rather than ideational (ultimately spatial) concepts.

We are all familar, I think, with what are considered the basic emotions:

ANGER FEAR SADNESS HAPPINESS DISGUST INTEREST

and in modern languages, we make non-phonemic sounds (interjections) to indicate our anger, fear, sadness, happiness, disgust, or interest etal.

I believe KhoiSan also did this with 'clicks' which, in contrast to other languages, were attached to the roots as prefixes, and served to differentiate meanings within the broad ranges by indicating emotional attitudes towards each component:

A hypothetical paradigm of this process might be:

| (dental) - DISGUST: ——— | + YELLOW (*CV[C])= 'dirtiness'
! (alveolar) - ANGER: ——— ! + YELLOW (*CV[C]) = 'sun'
‡ (palatal), - FEAR: ——— ‡ + YELLOW (*CV[C]) = 'lion'
|| (alveolar-lateral - INTEREST: ——— || + YELLOW (*CV[C]) = 'gold'

and for completeness though Nama does not presently have it:

Θ (bilabial - HAPPINESS: ——— Θ + YELLOW (*CV[C]) = 'orange (fruit)'

and perhaps (?):

Ø (no click - (RESIGNATION TO) SADNESS / NEUTRALITY: ——— Ø + YELLOW (*CV[C]) = 'dust'

This scheme is not meant as a proposal but only as an illustration of what I think the process will someday be recognized to entail.

Tone

Stopa (1986)^(c) has convincingly argued for tones in the earliest Hottentot-Bushman which suggests a similar predecessor in the Proto-Language. This is a subject I will not take up at this point.

In the comparisons above, I have diverged from Stopa's method of indicating tones; his "Hochton" (^v) is indicated by my circumflex accent (e.g. â); his "Mittelton" ('), I leave unmarked; his "Tiefton" (`), I retain; long vowels are indicated by following diaeresis (:); instead of his tilde (~) to indicate a nasal vowel, I prefer the n-superscript (ⁿ).

Combinatory Modifications
for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the
Table of Modifications

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN NAMA

(not included under lexical headings)

press here to see

Summary of Phonological Changes
from Proto-Language to Nama

PROTO-LANGUAGE MONOSYLLABLES

In order for readers to judge the semantic plausibility of the analysis of Proto-Language (PL) compounds suggested here, I am including access to a table of Proto-Language monosyllables and the meanings I have provisionally assigned.

Most assignments can be exhaustively supported by data from actually attested forms but a few animates are very doubtful; and this list does not represent the "final" solution of these questions, which will only be approached when other scholars assist in refining it.

Patrick C. Ryan

Summer 1998

NAMA BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

the latest revision of this document can be found at
HTTP://WWW.GEOCITIES.COM/proto-language/c-NAMA-14.htm

Patrick C. Ryan * 9115 West 34th Street - Little Rock, AR 72204-4441 * (501)227-9947
PROTO-LANGUAGE@msn.com

NOTES

a. I am aware that some readers, who may entertain the possibility of a Pontic-Nostratic connection between Indo-European and Afrasian, will not be able to accept the possibility of a reconstruction of a language as early as the Proto-Language. To those readers, may I suggest that the Proto-Language reconstruction be merely regarded as an expression of an arbitrary system of notation that allows for the regular relationships of correspondence between Indo-European and Nama.

b. These semantic proposals are based on the meanings of Proto-Language monosyllables deduced from many languages but primarily Egyptian and Sumerian, which, I believe, have conservatively preserved the meanings of these early monosyllables through their writing systems. Whether the meanings are plausible to the reader or not has no bearing on whether the forms are phonologically related.

c. Stopa, Roman. 1986. Schnalze: Ihre Natur, Entwicklung und Ursprung. Bibliotheca Nostratica, Vol. 7. Ed. Gyula Décsy. Bloomington: Eurolingua

d. This word is written with Gardiner H6, 'feather`). When written with the ideograph stroke, it reads šj^e (with -.t, 'feathers, plumage'),corresponding to PIE g^wei-, 'skin, pelt, *feather^e'; and PL XE-¿E, ('body-hair-like'), 'feather'.

Another name for 'feather' was, we submit, jw, the 'hollow one', from the hollowness of a quill. It is this reading that we presume for *šw, 'empty, lacking, *hollow', based on semantic consderations. This reading was employed when H6 was determined by G37, 'sparrow', the determinative for misfortune.

This suggests, among other things, that the air-god Shu (šw) might possibly have been named jw, i.e. Yau, the 'empty one'.

The 'feather', H6, šw also means 'dry' when determined by N5, the 'sun-disk'; presumably, this was also read jw.

Another important word derived from XE-¿E in Egyptian is šn; or, as we would prefer to write it: *šjn, corresponding to PIE g^wi-no-, 'hair', when glossed with Gardiner D3, '(curl of) hair' (*šjn.w), a mater lectionis for the reading with final n.

This word, *šjn.w is based on PL XE-¿E-NA-FA, 'body hair-like-thing-SET' = 'coat of hair/feathers'; as is *šn.w, '(meshes of) net'.

e. Since N[H]A-F[H]A-M[H]A also meant 'feather', XE-¿E was prefixed to it in PIE-derived languages to yield XE-¿E-N[H]A-F[H]A-M[H]A, 'quill'. This is PIE (*g^^wil[l]-). The doubled -ll- of the PIE forms is due to an assimilation of -m to -l-, yielding PIE *g^^will-, 'quill'.

f. Nama utilizes b as a masculine termination, and s as a feminine one, and -i for common gender (neuter). These can be safely ignored when cognates are being proposed.

g. I have come to the conclusion that pre-glottalization, in view of its outcome in voicing, is the likelier actual phonological shape of the stops and affricates I show as post-glottalized (P?); trully [?p]. However, I will continue to notate them as if there were post-glottalized merely to maintain conintuity with what I have wriiten in other essays at this website.

h. The Proto-Language consisted of 90 monosyllables, which are further analyzable into their *C + *V components.

i. (†) This phoneme is realized as a nasalized vowel.

j. Differentiation of meanings deerived from a root with similar or identical forms may have been the principal cause of the introduction of tonal differences.

k. I have long held that what are traditionally called biliterals would have been superfluous if they simply indicated only a sequence of two consonants as mn discussed above; it could have been more simply written as a sequence of

‌ with determinatives to distinguish among homophones if needed or heterophones. These signs are really triliterals, specifying that the medial component is not simply a vowel (*a) but rather a consonant like j (and, provisionally, in a few cases w), which were actually probably realized as diphthongs or lengthened vowels.

Current HE linguistics relies heavily on Coptic vocalization to reconstruct HE vocalization with, in my opinion, misleading results. Also, PS vowel-patterning models are en vogue; these patterns are not a part of Proto-Afro-Asiatic (I prefer PAA, Proto-Afrasian).

I believe 'alphabetic' writing was made feasible in HE not because of predictable vowel-patterning but because most vowels had been leveled to *a; and only where lengthened (â) or diphthongized (*ai *ê or *au *ô) vowels were present made an indication of interior vocalization desirable through biliterals (really: triliterals).

My former Professor Ignace J. Gelb (Story of Writing) of the University of Chicago maintained to me, in spite of strenuous opposition from me and many others, that Egyptian 'alphabetic' signs were actually syllabic: m = *ma only; and I now believe he was right then.

NOTES (2)

1. In the Proto-Language, there were three vowels: E, A, O.

In Nostratic, there were three vowels: *i, *a, *u.

During the Pontic stage of Nostratic, from which IE and AA developed, there was only one V(owel) [or *A{blautvokal}]: *a ([a], 'central low' — possibly with a stress-unaccented schwa {ə} allophone), which became *é, *ò, *°, or *Ø in IE according to the Ablautsstufe or accent-grade required by the stress-accent; a palatal (^*y), velar ^*w) or no glide preceded the vowel. These glides disappeared in IE, leaving only dorsals and dorsal nasals palatalized by ^*y, and a few apicals and dorsal nasals velarized by (^*w).

In AA, the glides and no glide + *a became *i, *a, and *u. Subsequently, all vowels were conflated into *a but *i and *u lived on as allophones employed to mark various grammatical forms (vowel patterning); it is possible that some root nouns retained *i, *a, and *u.

During the Pontic-Nostratic stage, Nostratic *i, *a, *u that were lengthened by a preceding or following 'laryngeal' (*H*e:. *a:, *o:) and were not reduced to *A though they were preceded by a glide or no glide. When the glides disappeared (v. supra). the lengthened vowels remained intact.

2. Final Early IE voiced aspirated stops + a can become unaspirated: -bha becomes -b(a); -gha becomes -g(a); -dha becomes -d(a).

3. v. 2. supra!

4. v. 2. supra!

5. It is well-known that b is rare in IE as an initial and even questioned by some scholars as a root final. I have found that Early IE *b (from PL P[?]) appears in the stage of IE normally reconstructed as w or bh as when root initial though usually as b when root final. It is uncertain at this time if the presence of a nearby laryngal-pharyngal (H) was the conditioning factor in P[?] becoming IE initial bh as opposed to w though the expected coloring does not seem to occur.

6. In the case of Example #66, we have, in the IE section, the root in two forms: t(h)we(:)r- and *t(h)er-, 'turn', listed incorrectly under *2. ter-, 'rub . . . turn'. The meanings 'rub' etal. belong to PL TSHE-RHE, 'turn (as in drilling for fire or to produce a puncture; Egyptian D3, Gardiner U28/29, which depicts a fire-drill).

7. In the Nama words discussed, we can see that there is a fluctuation between maintaining i and u as such and combining with Nama a to form e and o. I have not yet been able to determine the conditions under which one or the other result is produced.

8. In Nama, it appears that animate forms are used for indefinite inanimate pronouns; and inanimate forms for interrogative animate pronouns. This appears tohave been a feature of the Proto-Lnaguage since we find, e.g. Sumerian -ni, 'his' but a-na, 'what?'; -bi, 'its', but a-ba, 'who?'. The Egyptian interrogative element š could represent both inanimate (XA) and animate (XHA). In PIE, the animate form covers both animate and inanimate interrogative and indefinite pronouns: k^wé-, 'who/what?'. I find it difficult to see what this contrary assignment accomplished. See table below.

PROTO- LANGUAGE 'quantity' BASE FOR INTERROGATIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES, AND ADVERBS	Proto-Indo-European	Hiero- glyphic Egyptian	Sumerian	N A M A
INANIMATE
XA	*g^wA k^wA (animate for inanimate) k^wé, 'what?' k^wén, 'how much?' *k^w[é]w / k^wú, 'how?' *k^w[é]a: / k^wá:, 'where?' k^wéy, 'which?' k^wò, 'something' *k^wòm, 'when?'	š [?] (could represent either animate or inanimate) š in j-š-z.t, 'what?' [interrogative prefix + 'quantity' + 'it']	ha [?] (could represent either animate or inanimate) -ha, collective suffix	*ha xa (animate for inanimate) xu:*, '(some)thing'
ANIMATE
*XHA*	k^wA k^wé, 'who?' k^wò, 'someone' k^wén, 'how many?'	m [different morpheme] (could represent either animate or inanimate) m, 'who? / what?'	ha [?] (could represent either animate or inanimate) -ha, collective suffix	*xa ha (inanimate for animate) hoa / hu:, 'all' he, 'this' \|hae(-)s, 'a number of, a lot of' hu:(-s), 'only, all' hám*, 'who?'

9. This is good example of a fairly rare type of compound surviving into PIE, of which the first element is not a qualifier of the second but rather an independent verbal morpheme which temporally precedes the verbal morpheme in the second element — quite common in Sino-Tibetan languages.

10. PIE phonotactics do not permit a labialized dorsal (*g(^)^w / *k(^)^w) to be followed by -*w-;the labialized dorsal is simplified to a plain dorsal.

11. Candor compels me to delineate a procedure I have used many times in this essay and others in proposing a Sumerian cognate for a Proto-Language form or one of the other language(-families)s being compared.

Sumerologists have made remarkable progress in connecting Sumerian words with probable meanings but every sign without exception has other readings which remain unassigned.

This circumstance results, in my opinion, for three major reasons: 1) semantically unassigned readings similar phonologically to the major assigned readings of the sign but not related semantically have been associated with the sign; 2) synonyms of the major assigned readings of the sign have been associated with it because of the semantic (near) identity; and 3) simple scribal error, which can be in the specific reading of any assigned or unassigned reading.

I, therefore, feel free to provisionally assume that an unassigned reading for the sign that has the anticipated phonological shape may legitimately associated with an assigned meaning with a similar or totally different phonological shape.

An example will clarify this. In Example 1., the sign reads 1-5 but has not assigned meaning. The sign, J. 15, has the assigned meaning of 'tooth'. From comparison, we know that PL ?E means 'tooth'. The established correspondences predict a Sumerian phonological shape of î for it. Therefore, I assume that 'tooth' (J. 15) had an unrecognized reading of i-5. This, of course, cannot be documentarily established but after a number of 'coincidental' matches like this, the procedure gains some stature as probablistically justified.

12. A comparison of personal pronouns may be seen in the table below:

PROTO- LANGUAGE	INDO- EUROPEAN	NAMA	SUMERIAN	HIEROGLYPHIC EGYPTIAN
¿E FIRST PERSON, 'speaker' singular	me	-e(:), 'we' (plural)	not found	-j
ME FIRST PERSON, 'conversers' plural	me	-m´, 'we' (dual)	za	not found
*THSA* SECOND PERSON 'stander'	*-t(h)a(:)**	-ts	za	not found
*KHXE* MASCULINE 'mobile'	k^o for k^(h)o	-kx	not found	not found
*SHA* FEMININE 'immobile'	sa:, fem. of so	-s	not found	in z.t, 'it'
¿O COMMON 'object'	y in s(i)yo and tyo- yo-	-i	not found	not found
*SHO* INCLUSIVE '(clan) member'	so (for *so(:))	sá-	not found	not found
*SHE* EXCLUSIVE 'non-member'	se (for *se(:))	sí-	še (for *ši-x), 'that'	z, 'man/individual'
*THO* THIRD PERSON, 'assemblage' plural	in -nt	in -ti	-d	-t
*T?SA* REFLEXIVE '(own) body'	*-dh**	*not found*	not found	in D.t, 'self'

13. All listed occurrences of a Nama phoneme or monosyllable are word-initial or intervocalic. Final avocalic occurrences will be entered after the heading final.

14. A number of languages reflect Fv-¿E differently than Fv + any other consonant. The most frequent anomalous response is with g. This probably has something to be with the phonotactic reaction to contiguous or successive [w] + [y]: [w^(y)(e)ye], which is like putting fire with water.

15. This word used for 'eye/see' is particularly interesting because of the suspected ethnic connections of the KhoiSan with Sino-Tibetans, and the very widespread use of a similar word in Sino-Tibetan for 'eye/see': *myVk.

POTENTIAL NAMA COMPARANDA

Nama ||ai(-)b, 'rage, fury, anger'

Nama |âm, 'light up, green'

Nama ||ama, 'damp, moist'

Nama am, am-mi, 'right, right arm, right hand, the right'

Nama |an, 'smoke'

Nama |an / |anni(-s), 'to smoke; smoke'

Nama ao(-)b, 'man; husband'

Nama axa(-b)/(-s), 'boy/girl'

Nama birib, 'billy-goat'

PL p^hfo, 'sheep, spongy, stink` (cf. Egyptian *b[i], 'sheep` [Egyptian E10/11, 'ram`]; Sumerian pa-8, '*sheep' [sign reads pa-8, and means 'sheepskin, fleece'])

Nama ||ga, 'to, towards (postposition)'

Nama ||ga:, 'thin, flimsy'

Nama |gaⁿb, 'grass'

PIE *g^ein-, 'blade` (cf. Armenian ciL, 'blade, stack`), listed under g^e:i-, 'sprout, split, bloom'

Nama ||gan(-)i, 'meat'

Nama ‡gaⁿ(-)iⁿ, 'good (*familiar)'

good eye?

PIE g^enyo- in Latin genius, 'protective spirit, familiar`, listed under 1. g^en-, 'engender, bear'

Nama ||gona, 'down, downwards'

Nama gu:-, 'sheep'

Nama ||gû, 'parent'

Nama |gûi(-s), 'intestines'

Nama hei(-)b, 'stick'

Nama -hè, passive suffix

Nama ho:-!â, 'feel, perceive, come to know, learn, become aware of'

|hòⁿas, 'wild cat'

Nama kà, indefinite marker in verbs

Nama kâ, iterative marker in verbs

Nama kè, 'longpast marker in verbs'

PIE in kam-er-, 'arch, bend`; k_emer-, 'animals with armor; crab, turtle'

Nama ||koma, 'beetle`

Nama !kuⁿs, 'brains` (really 'skull contents?')

PKK -ku, masculine plural marker in nouns

Nama kûi, 'to squirm, wriggle'

Nama kuru, 'to make, create'

Nama -kxà, masculine dual marker in nouns

Nama |kxa:(-)b, 'body'

Nama kxabu(-)s, kxawu(-s), 'thumb'

Nama ||kxore, 'to yearn, long, wish for'

Nama |kxuru, 'sour; dry, parched (as in a drought)'

Nama ôa, 'to give birth; descendants'

Nama |om, 'breathe'

Nama ome(-)b, 'uncle'

Nama |on(-)s, 'name'

Nama -rà, dual marker (nom.) (PKK: -kxa)

Nama -rè, -rò, -rà, verbal formant: imperfective

Nama sara, 'articles of clothing'

Nama si:, 'to arrive, reach, get to'

Nama so:, 'to cut (with knife)'

Nama sûi, 'to teem, swarm'

Nama toâ, 'finish, end'

PIE ta:u-, 'loosen up', listed under ta:-; in teus-, 'empty out'

Nama |ui(-)b, 'brother-in-law'

Nama |uri(-)b, 'iron' (aur-???)

INSPECTED

G where we expect K

√ Nama |go: / |gôa, 'child'

√ Nama ‡gu:, 'to hit (with club)'

√ Nama !gu:, 'to cover (up)'

√ Nama -kò, nearpast marker in verbs

√ Nama |kxae, 'to give (as present)'

√ Nama |kxai, 'to spray'

√ Nama kxama, 'like, similar to'

√ Nama |kxâu(-)b, 'bristle, hair, whisker'

√ Nama ‡kxo:, 'catch, grasp'

√ Nama |nanu(-b), 'rain'; |nanu-s, 'cloud'

√ Nama !nu:(-)b, 'haze, cloud'

√ Nama sen, 'to fancy, like, be fond of'

√ Nama soe, 'to be in love sith something'

√ Nama tsawi, tswabi, 'to glance at, look back at'

√ Nama tsî(-s), 'big toe'

√ Nama xawas, 'dish, container'

√ PIE k^wa-, '*flat`, in k^was-yo-, 'wicker-work'; 2. k^wer-, in words that mean 'something like a dish, bowl'

√ Nama xon, xen, 'grind, pound'

================

("neck-thing) twist"), N ; cf. (IE ); (S yyy , 'yyy' - J. 000); (E ); RATIONALE: yyy .

‡

۩ (& #1769;)

√ (& #8730;)

۞ (& #1758;)

c-NAMA-14.htm

PROTO-LANGUAGE PHONEMES

in IE and Nama

([Khoi]San)

TABLE OF PL / IE / NAMA ([Khoi]San) CORRESPONDENCES

For examples, see (NUMBER) in PL / IE / Nama (Khoi[San]) Lexical Comparisons below.

For 'clicks', see CLICKS and CLICK COMPARISON.

SUMERIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE ([IE,] Sumerian and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

AFRASIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE ([IE,] Arabic and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

PL / IE / NAMA LEXICAL COMPARISONS

(IE entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny) entries marked by ** have been reconstructed by the author (:) indicates unrecorded vowel length required by reconstruction E = Egyptian; OInd = Old Indian; IE = Indo-European; S = Sumerian

VOWELS

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN NAMA

press here to see

The correspondence of ???+ roots and many formants suffices for a preliminary study to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.

NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS

For an explanation of the Proto-Language and Indo-European notational conventions used in these essays, press here.

Nama

?, h b, p, d, t, g (gy before e/i), k (ky before e/i), w (written o or u but also w intervocalically), s, x, ts, kx, m, n, n, r a, e, i, o, u CLICKS: | (dental), ! (alveolar) ‡ (palatal), || (alveolar-lateral) Θ (bilabial) [Nama does not presently have this click]

CLICKS

Tone

Combinatory Modifications for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the Table of Modifications

PL MORPHOLOGICAL ELEMENTS IN NAMA

press here to see

Summary of Phonological Changes from Proto-Language to Nama

PROTO-LANGUAGE MONOSYLLABLES

NAMA BIBLIOGRAPHY

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY

NOTES

NOTES (2)

PROTO-LANGUAGE

'quantity'

Proto-Indo-European

Hiero-glyphic Egyptian

Sumerian

NAMA

INANIMATE

XA

**gwA *kwA (animate for inanimate)

š [?]

ha [?]

(animate for inanimate)

ANIMATE

XHA

*kwA

m [different morpheme]

ha [?]

(inanimate for animate)

singular

plural

plural

POTENTIAL NAMA COMPARANDA

TABLE
OF
PL / IE / NAMA ([Khoi]San)
CORRESPONDENCES

SUMERIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE
([IE,] Sumerian and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

AFRASIAN CORRESPONDENCE TABLE
([IE,] Arabic and Hieroglyphic Egyptian)

(IE entries in parentheses are keywords in Pokorny)
entries marked by have been reconstructed by the author
(:) indicates unrecorded vowel length required by reconstruction**
E = Egyptian; OInd = Old Indian; IE = Indo-European;
S = Sumerian

**The correspondence of ???+ roots and many formants suffices for a preliminary study to establish the presumption of a genetic relationship.**

For an explanation of the Proto-Language and Indo-European notational conventions
used in these essays, press here.

?, h

b, p, d, t, g (g^y before e/i), k (k^y before e/i),

w (written o or u but also w intervocalically), s, x,

ts, kx,

m, n, ⁿ,

r

a, e, i, o, u

CLICKS:
| (dental), ! (alveolar)
‡ (palatal), || (alveolar-lateral)
Θ (bilabial) [Nama does not presently have this click]

Combinatory Modifications
for modifications of the vowels and consonants in combination, see the
Table of Modifications

Summary of Phonological Changes
from Proto-Language to Nama

PROTO-
LANGUAGE

Hiero-
glyphic Egyptian

N
A
M
A

**g^wA
*k^wA
(animate for inanimate)

*k^wA