VINES
lants utilizing climbing or creeping stems for support are known as vines. Rambling types rest upon other plants, often fastened with thorns or prickles, as with certain roses. English ivy has adventitious roots, whereas vines such as the morning glory climb with the entire stem coiling the host. Trailing arbutus creeps along the ground surface with rooting occurring along the hairy stem.
Amaranth {am'-uh-ranth} is the common name for members of a family (Amaranthaceae) of warm-region herbs, trees, and vines, especially those of the genus Amaranthus, often characterized by reddish pigment in the stems and leaves. Many species, including tumbleweed, A. alba, are troublesome weeds. Other species are flowering perennials and garden ornamentals, such as love-lies-bleeding, or tasselflower, A. caudatus, which has crimson, chenille-textured flower spikes, and A. tricolor, with its green, yellow, scarlet, or multicolored leaves.
A. caudatus is thought to be the species that was cultivated in Mexico as a food plant until it was almost extirpated by the Spanish conquistadors, who associated its use with Aztec blood rituals. in the Far East and India several amaranth species are cultivated today as green vegetables, or for their edible seeds, which contain more high-quality protein than wheat. Research holds out great promise for the development of amaranth species that will be heavy grain producers, with the potential for cultivation in harsh climates and difficult soils.
Plants are grown indoors either for their foliage or for their flowers. Some plants--such as ferns and begonias--provide year-round decoration; others--such as Easter lilies, tulips, and other potted bulbs--are excellent for seasonal display. Over a thousand plants, with original habitats ranging from Eurasia to South America, thrive indoors when grown under the proper conditions. Such conditions--the amount of light, heat, humidity, water, and soil--vary for different types of plants. For instance, cacti and other succulents must have full sun exposure, but African violets thrive best in diffuse light; asparagus fern can tolerate a cool room, but orchids require a warm, humid environment.
Although most plants are acquired already potted, they also can be grown from seeds or leaf cuttings from another plant. Plants that have already been potted do not need to be disturbed until their roots have outgrown the container or the minerals and nutrients have been depleted from the soil. Containers are often made of clay or plastic, although materials used range from glass and ceramic pots to wooden tubs. Sizes also vary from very small, accommodating perhaps an air plant, to very large containers for palms, philodendrons, or indoor fruit trees.
Various plants thrive only in certain types of soil; for instance, the sandy mixture suited to a succulent will cause an orchid--which requires a great amount of plant fiber or peat moss--to die. Plants supply their own food by means of photosynthesis but grow better when fertilized, which serves to replenish the mineral content of the soil.
Although indoor plants do not suffer as much from insects as do outdoor plants, pests can be carried into the house on a newly acquired plant. Insects that damage houseplants include aphids, spider mites, mealybugs, whiteflies, and scales.
The amount of water that a potted plant receives is important. Cacti, for instance, require very little water; a Boston fern, on the other hand, needs a great amount. Plants that are dormant require minimal watering, but these same plants need regular care when growing or flowering. Ferns often need their leaves misted; plants like the African violet, however, cannot tolerate water on their leaves.
Most houseplants do poorly in the constant sunlight of a window, because the temperature often rises so high that the plant faces dehydration and burning of the leaves. Many plants, however, thrive in full sunlight, including aloe, geranium, and kalanchoe, and some plants, such as aspidistra and cyclamen, can tolerate dim light. On the whole, however, houseplants prefer middle ranges of light. Sunlight is best, but plants also receive adequate illumination from fluorescent lamps or special "grow lights," which emit certain wavelengths of the light spectrum.
Many indoor gardeners enjoy constructing TERRARIUMS--glass-enclosed, self-sufficient plant habitats--or propagating plants as hobbies. Such associations as the American Begonia Society provide information on specific types of plants and conduct flower shows. Donald Wyman
See also: DISEASES, PLANT; GARDENING; PLANT BREEDING; PLANT PROPAGATION.
Begonias, genus Begonia, are a large group of succulent herbs, shrubs, and vines that are commonly grown as ornamentals. The genus, which belongs to the family Begoniaceae, includes more than 1,000 species; they are chiefly found in Central and South America, although a few are native to other tropical and subtropical regions. No indigenous species occur in the United States, but a number of species are native to Mexico. Most begonias are annual or perennial herbs with jointed stems; alternate, simple, palmately veined and sometimes lobed leaves; and unisexual flowers.
Begonias are universally used as houseplants because of their ease in culture and wide variety. Among the more than 10,000 horticultural varieties and hybrids that are commonly grown are many with outstanding and unusual foliage. Many also have large, showy, long-lasting flowers that vary in color from white through pink to red and yellow. Because they are susceptible to frost damage, they are usually used as summer bedding plants in the north, being set out after the danger of frost is past and taken indoors in the fall.
The cultivated begonias are commonly divided into three general groups by rootstock: those with fibrous, rhizomatous, and tuberous roots. Among the common fibrous-rooted species are the angel-wing begonia, Begonia coccinea, and the wax begonia, B. semperflorens. The rhizomatous-rooted begonias include the beefsteak begonia, B. feastii, and the rex begonia, B. rex-cultorum. A widely cultivated species of tuberous begonia, B. tuberhybrida, is probably the result of hybridization among several Andean species. John Ebinger
The genus Bignonia is represented by a single species, B. capreolata, a woody vine native to southeastern North America. This genus lends its name to the family Bignoniaceae, a group of trees and woody vines that grow in subtropical and tropical areas. Both the CATALPA tree and the TRUMPET TREE are members of the the Bignoniaceae.
Bindweeds include about 250 species of twining vines of the genera Convolvulus and Calystegia of the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. They are often grown on trellises or fences to display their heart- or arrow-shaped leaves and funnel-shaped white, pink, or blue flowers. Some species are troublesome weeds, especially the hedge bindweed, Calystegia sepium. The hedge bindweed has been used medicinally for its purgative action.
Bittersweet is the common name for two species of Celastrus in the small woody plant family Celastraceae, as well as for Solanum dulcamara in the very large and economically important, mostly herbaceous plant family Solanaceae. Both species of Celastrus are climbing, deciduous, woody vines best known for their clusters of small colorful fruit. The dull-orange fruit consists of capsules that split open after a frost, exposing scarlet, flesh-coated seeds. Celastrus scandens grows in moist thickets and along the streams of eastern North America. Although Celastrus orbiculatus is native to eastern Asia and has not been cultivated in North America, it has been naturalized from Massachusetts southward. The stems of both species of Celastrus bearing the showy, orange fruit with red seeds are frequently used in dried arrangements in winter. The European red-berried bittersweet, Solanum dulcamara, is a perennial vine that is woody only near the ground. Its pale violet, blue, or white flowers are similar to those of the potato and eggplant, which are also members of the genus Solanum. This bittersweet has a red tomatolike berry that, like other parts of the plant, is poisonous. Solanum dulcamara is not usable for dried arrangements.
Black-eyed Susan, also called yellow daisy, Rudbeckia hirta, is a name commonly given a wild flowering plant belonging to the composite family, Compositae. Native to southern Canada and the eastern United States, it is an annual, biennial, or short-lived perennial that is sometimes a bothersome weed but is also cultivated. It grows to about 1 m (3 ft) high and bears heads of orange yellow ray flowers around a purple brown disk or cone. The name black-eyed Susan is also given to clock vine, Thunbergia alata; treasure flower, Gazania splendens; and coneflower, Rudbeckia lacinata. The black-eyed Susan is the state flower of Maryland.
Bougainvillea {boo-guhn-vil'-ee-uh}, Bougainvillea glabra, is an evergreen vine or shrub belonging to the four-o'clock family, Nyctaginaceae. Native to South America, bougainvillea can be grown outdoors in any frost-free area. In the tropics bougainvillea plants are grown as pruned shrubs. In Florida and California they are used as showy flowering vines. The actual flowers are small and inconspicuous but have large, rose-colored bracts.
Buckthorn is the common name for some members of the buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae, which comprises about 55 genera with 900 species of mostly thorny or spiny shrubs, small trees, and climbing vines. They are widely distributed but most abundant in arid, temperate to subtropical regions. The JUJUBE is a member of the family.
More specifically, buckthorn refers to the genus Rhamnus, about 150 species of evergreen or deciduous shrubs and small trees found in temperate and subtropical regions on all continents except Australia; some species are also known as cascara. The black, fleshy fruit of buckthorn contains 2-4 hardened nutlets and in the U.S. west is an important food source for some birds and mammals. A related species known as COYOTILLO, however, can be poisonous to cattle. The leaves, bark, and berries of some buckthorns have considerable purgative qualities.
Some species in the genus Bumelia, family Sapotaceae, are commonly referred to as false buckthorn.
The calabash, Crescentia cujete, is a tropical American tree in the bignonia family, Bignoniaceae. They grow up to 12 m (40 ft) high, and their flowers are yellow with red or purple veins. Their hard-shelled fruits are made into water vessels, pipes, and other utensils. The calabash gourd is the common name for hard-shelled fruits of the vine Lagenaria siceraria in the cucumber family, Cucurbitaceae. Its fruits are used for dippers and bowls.
The carrion flower, Smilax herbacea, is in the lily family, Liliaceae. It is a native North American vine growing about 2 m (6 ft) high. The name carrion flower is also used to designate the genus Stapelia of the milkweed family, Asclepiadaceae, whose flowers have a similarly offensive odor.
Cassabanana {kas-uh-buh-nan'-uh} is the common name for a South American vine, Sicana odorifera, that belongs to the Cucurbitaceae (gourd family). It is grown as an ornamental because of its decorative, fragrant fruit, which is slender, nearly cylindrical, up to 60 cm (2 ft) long, orange-crimson in color, and edible.
Cissus {sis'-uhs} is any of several climbing, tropical shrubs belonging to the grape family, Vitaceae. A few species are grown in greenhouses for their decorative foliage. Marine ivy, C. incisa, is a tall climber that grows in the southern United States; C. capensis, an evergreen vine from South Africa, is planted extensively in southern California.
Clematis {klem'-uh-tuhs}, genus Clematis, is any of several deciduous climbing or bush plants that belong to the buttercup family, Ranunculaceae. They are widely distributed throughout temperate zones. Many species, varieties, and hybrids exist with varying habits and flowering forms. The climbing forms are well adapted to cover fences, arbors, or porches; the bush types are used in flower borders. Although Clematis vines like sunlight, the roots must be cool. The peak flowering time is early summer.
Convolvulus: see MORNING GLORY.
Derris is any plant of the genus Derris in the pea family, Leguminosae. About 80 species exist, all woody vines or trees native to the tropics of the Old World. D. elliptica, D. malaccensis, and D. uliginosa, are cultivated in southeast Asia for their roots, which contain rotenone and related compounds used as insecticides and fish poisons. Rotenone is either extracted from the roots, or the roots are simply ground and used as a powder. Widely used as an insecticide because of its low toxicity to warm-blooded animals, rotenone is also obtained commercially from the roots of tropical American cube plants, especially Lonchocarpus utilis, also of the pea family. Rotenone is found in the roots of other plants, including Tephrosia vogelii of Africa and Jacquinia barbasco of the West Indies.
Dodder, Cuscuta, comprises several species of leafless, parasitic twining plants that belong to the morning-glory family, Convolvulaceae. Some of its common names are love vine, strangle-weed, and devil's-hair. These threadlike plants lack chlorophyll and attach their yellow, orange, or pink stems to other plants such as clover, alfalfa, and flax, which they damage by means of suckers, that withdraw nutrients.
Dutchman's pipe, Aristolochia durior, is a hardy woody vine of the birthwort family, Aristolochiaceae. Also called pipe vine, its name comes from the brownish purple, tubular, U-shaped flowers, which resemble a meerschaum pipe. The vine grows rapidly, reaching 9 m (30 ft) in length. It makes an excellent screening plant because its large, rounded leaves, often 30 cm (1 ft) long, tend to remain flat against the growing surface. Dutchman's-pipe is found in woods and on stream banks from Pennsylvania to Georgia and Kansas and is also widely cultivated in gardens.
Gnetum {neet'-uhm} is the only genus in the family Gnetaceae, a group of broad-leaved gymnosperms. Most members of the genus are small tropical trees and climbing vines found in the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. The leathery evergreen leaves are simple, ovate to oblong. The plants are usually dioecious.
Greenbrier {green'-bry-ur} is the common name for the genus Smilax, in the lily family, Liliaceae, a group of herbaceous or woody vines with fleshy, tuberous roots and often prickly or thorny stems with grasping, stringlike tendrils. Separate male and female flowers are borne in clusters on different plants. The fruit is a berry with one to six seeds. The genus contains about 200 species, mostly tropical, with some occurring in temperate North America and Asia. Extracts of the roots of some species yield sarsaparilla and sapogenin. Olin S. Fearing
Honeysuckle is a large genus, Lonicera, of more than 150 species of evergreen or deciduous shrubs or vines in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, that are widespread in the Northern Hemisphere. Species of honeysuckle are valued for their tubular and often fragrant flowers. Shrub forms are used frequently in landscape plantings, but honeysuckle can become a problem because of its rampant growth.
Asiatic bush honeysuckles include winter honeysuckle, Lonicera fragrantissima, a deciduous shrub that is partially evergreen in mild-winter climates. Leaves are dark green above and blue green beneath, 2.5-7.5 cm (1-3 in) long. The creamy white flowers are not showy but have rich fragrance. Tartarian honeysuckle, Lonicera tatarica, forms dense masses of twiggy branches and produces small pink or white flowers in late spring. Climbing species of honeysuckle include Japanese honeysuckle, Lonicera japonica, an evergreen vine that may be deciduous in colder regions. Leaves are deep green and flowers are white with a purplish tinge. Trumpet honeysuckle, Lonicera sempervirens, is a tall climber with orange yellow to scarlet flowers.
Species belonging to genera other than Lonicera are sometimes referred to as honeysuckles: swamp honeysuckle is Rhododendron viscosum, and Himalaya honeysuckle is Leycesteria formosa.
Hops, Humulus Iupulus, are perennial climbing plants of the hemp family (Cannabaceae) that are cultivated principally for their flowers, used as a flavoring in beer. New vines, produced annually, rise from an underground stem that may grow 4.5 m (15 ft) deep. The pollinated female flowers, or cones, develop sticky yellow grains (hop meal) that contain the characteristic bitter hop flavor. The cones must be kiln-dried and cured for use in brewing. Hop flavor is often added to beer by using extracts derived from boiling the hops. The United States and Germany are leading producers of hops.
Vernonia, commonly referred to as ironweed, is a widely distributed plant genus of more than 500 species in the family Compositae. It includes herbs, vines, and shrubs. Ironweed heads have purple, white, or pink disk florets, and the leaves are usually alternate and toothed. V. noveboracensis is native to eastern North America. Dianne Fahselt
Trailing plants that belong to the genus Hedera, family Araliaceae, are usually known as ivies. The English ivy, H. helix, native to Eurasia, is an evergreen vine with handsome, glossy leaves. It is a hardy, dependable climber that clings to walls or the ground by means of aerial roots. Varieties of H. helix include: "baltica," a very hardy plant; "conglomerata", a slow-growing dwarf variety; "hahn's self-branching," used as a ground cover because of its very dense growth; and "minima," which has small leaves and is used primarily for decorative purposes indoors. Algerian ivy, or Canary Island ivy, H. canariensis, is an attractive ivy from the Canary Islands that thrives in gardens of the southeastern United States.
Other species with ivylike leaves and growth habits are: American ivy or five-leaved ivy, Parthenocissus quinquefolia; Boston or Japanese ivy, P. tricuspidata; Cape ivy, Senecio macroglossus; German ivy, S. mikanioides ground ivy, Glechoma hederacea; poison ivy, Rhus toxicodendron; and ivy geranium, Pelargonium peltatum.
Kudzu, Pueraria lobata (formerly P. thunbergiana), of the pea family, Leguminosae, is a trailing or climbing, semiwoody vine with hairy stems and with leaves divided into three large, broadly oval leaflets, each up to 15 cm (6 in) long. Its fragrant flowers, which smell of grapes, are reddish purple with a yellow patch at the base of the uppermost petal and are borne in spikelike clusters (racemes) up to 30 cm (12 in) long. The fruit is a hairy pod, up to 10 cm (4 in) long, containing many seeds.
Kudzu is native to China and Japan, where it is cultivated for its edible roots and for its stem fibers, known as ko-hemp. It was introduced as an ornamental under its Japanese name into the southern United States during the 1870s; the related P. tuberosa and P. phaseoloides were introduced about 1911. Kudzu is now found as far north as Pennsylvania, but it rarely flowers north of Virginia. It is a rampant plant, growing as much as 30 cm (12 in) per day under ideal conditions, and may climb 18 m (60 ft) high, with a total length of 30 m (100 ft) and roots 3.5 m (12 ft) deep.
Kudzu is useful as forage and hay for livestock, for control of soil erosion, and for enriching the soil by adding nitrogen and leaf litter. It is, however, often considered a pest because it may completely cover trees and other objects with its rapid growth, and it is difficult to eradicate.
The melon, or muskmelon, Cucumis melo, of the Cucurbitaceae (cucumber) family, includes a diverse group of annual, trailing-vine plants that are grown for their fruits. The plants originated in the region of Persia and were probably introduced into North America during the 16th century.
The botanical classification of melons differs in some respects from popular nomenclature. The large group of netted melons, C. melo reticulatus, are commonly called cantaloupes in the United States. (A larger cantaloupe type is often marketed as a "muskmelon.") The true cantaloupe, however, C. melo cantalupensis, is seldom grown in North America, although it is common in Europe. Unlike the American cantaloupe, its skin is not netted. The so-called winter melons, C. melo inodorus, while officially members of the muskmelon group, lack the typical musky odor and are usually larger than cantaloupes. The winter melon group includes the smooth-skinned, green-fleshed honeydew; the dark green, orange-fleshed Persian; the yellow-skinned, green- or white-fleshed casaba; and the Crenshaw, which has a dark green, wrinkled rind and pink flesh. Most melon types are sensitive to cold and grow best in a hot, dry climate, although a few cultivars have been developed that can be grown in more northern regions.
The genus Monstera of the arum family, Araceae, contains 25 to possibly 50 species of tropical American plants that are typically woody vines (lianas). Young plants are usually climbers with small, solid leaves that cling closely, like shingles, to trees; and certain species, such as M. acuminata, are called shingle plants. Later the plants tend to become epiphytes, independent of the soil. Areas of leaf tissue between the veins may cease their growth, become dry, and break away, forming holes in the leaves; parts of the leaf margins may similarly fall away to produce deep notches. Monsteras are well-known foliage houseplants. The most popular is the split-leaf philodendron, M. delicosa, which has large, leathery, perforated leaves and long, cordlike aerial roots and may grow to 9 m (30 ft) or more in height. It has tiny flowers that are densely clustered on a thick spike, called a spadix, which is surrounded by a creamy white, leaflike bract (spathe). The spadix develops into an edible fruit with the combined flavor of pineapple and banana.
Moonseeds are two species of woody vines constituting the genus Menispermum in the moonseed family, Menispermaceae. The common moonseed, or yellow parilla, M. canadense, is found from southern Canada to Oklahoma and Georgia. It has large leaves, up to 25 cm (10 in) long, that may be nearly round, with a pointed tip, or shallowly lobed, with their bases separate from the leaf stalk (peltate leaves). Drooping clusters of small, whitish flowers appear in early summer and mature into black, berrylike drupes in early fall. Each fruit contains a single crescent-shaped stone, or seed, which gives the plant its name. Although generally resembling grapes on a vine, moonseed fruits are bitter and poisonous. The second species, M. dauricum, is native to Asia.
Morning glory is a common name for various herbaceous plants of the morning-glory family, Convolvulaceae, but refers particularly to certain plants of the genus Ipomoea, which are annual or perennial vines of warm and tropic regions. Some species of Ipomoea have seeds containing narcotic alkaloids similar to LSD. The common morning glory, I. purpurea, native to tropical America, is an annual vine with hairy stems, broad, heart-shaped leaves, and showy, funnel-shaped flowers of blue, purple, pink, or white.
The passionflower, genus Passiflora, is any one of about 400 species of evergreen or semievergreen flowering vines in the family Passifloraceae. It is primarily native to tropical America and has been introduced into the southernmost United States. Passionflower vines may become pests by becoming entangled in other vegetation. The edible berries, also called passion fruit, sweet granadilla, and sweet calabash, are economically important in the tropics.
The nearly 200 species of the genus Philodendron {fil-oh-den'-druhn} are popular evergreen vine- and shrub-type foliage plants classified in the arum family, Araceae. More than 120 species of philodendrons occur in the tropical regions of the Americas, many as dense vines supported by trees. Philodendron can be divided into two major types, climbing and nonclimbing. Both are useful as indoor plants with attractive foliage. They do best in warm temperatures and indirect sunlight.
The classification of poison ivy, a member of the cashew family, Anacardiaceae, is confused because of the plant's highly variable growth forms. Some authorities recognize at least two species of poison ivy, Rhus radicans and R. toxicodendron, while others consider these a single species. (The confusion is added to by referring to the shrubby forms of these plants as POISON OAK.) Poison ivy is a trailing or climbing woody vine or a shrublike plant, 60 cm to 2 m (2 to 7 ft) tall, containing a poisonous, oily substance called urushiol or toxicodendrol. Its leaves, borne on long stalks 10 to 35 cm (4 to 14 in) long, are each divided into three broad, pointed leaflets. The leaflets, up to 10 cm (4 in) long, are commonly dark glossy green above and slightly hairy below. Small, yellowish or greenish flowers are followed by berrylike drupes.
Poison ivy is native to eastern North America, but it is now found from southern Canada to Guatemala, in Bermuda and the Bahamas, and in China, Japan, and Taiwan. Contamination by poison ivy can occur through direct or indirect contact with any part of the plant or by exposure to smoke from burning the plants. The resulting DERMATITIS is limited first to the site of contact but may later spread. It can range from itching and inflammation to severe swelling with oozing blisters. Treatment with cortisone creams and ointments helps, once the lesions are dry.
The soybean, Glycine max, is a leguminous crop grown in many parts of the world and is of great economic significance as a source of edible oil and of high-protein foods and stockfeed. It is a cultigen (a species created through cultivation) and is not known in the wild. Its wild ancestor is believed to be Glycine ussuriensis, a rambling vine native to northeastern Asia. Other relatives are found in parts of Asia and in Australia and Africa. Like many leguminous crops, the soybean has lost the winding and climbing growth pattern of its wild relatives. It is an erect, bushy herb growing to a height of 30-90 cm (1-3 ft) and developing a profusion of roots that may reach up to a meter or more (3-4 ft) in loose soils.
History
The cultivation of soybeans in China predates recorded history and spread from there to other countries in eastern Asia before the modern period. So essential was the soybean to Chinese civilization that it was considered one of the five sacred grains (the others being rice, barley, wheat, and millet). The popularity of soybeans in the Orient was due to their wide use as a food. Tofu, a curd made from coagulated soybean milk, has become well known to Western eaters of East Asian cuisines.
In the late 19th century the soybean plant attracted the attention of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), which began introducing a number of varieties into the United States. The vegetable oil industry became interested in the plant's potential. Starting in the 1930s, a large cooperative program involving both U.S. and Canadian researchers began to develop improved soybean varieties through selective breeding. This program led to the introduction of varieties that differed markedly from the original Asian plants. The new varieties had higher yields and oil content. With these new varieties, the United States became the world's leading producer of soybeans. The rapid increase in production in a few decades is one of the most striking developments in U.S. agricultural history.
From American strains, soybean cultivation has recently spread to numerous countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Genetic improvement, which aims at higher yields as well as improved protein composition, began late in the United States. As a result, American soybeans represent a narrow range of genetic variation.
Cultivation and Characteristics
Soybeans do not tolerate frost and are photoperiod-sensitive, which means that flowering cannot begin until summer nights grow longer. Plants require abundant moisture and, in the absence of irrigation, do not do well in areas of winter precipitation such as Europe and Pacific America. Soybeans do best in fertile loams but can be grown in most soils. Depending on the variety, soybean plants mature in 75 to 200 days. When used as a green manure, the plants are plowed under while still green. After the leaves fall and the pods and stems dry naturally, the seeds are harvested with combines. Soybean seeds are hard, generally yellow, and pea-shaped. Like other leguminous plants, the soybean can associate with nitrogen-fixing bacteria found in the soil.
Uses
Soybeans are an important human food because they are unusually complete in proteins: of the eight essential amino acids, soybeans contain seven in sufficient quantity and are deficient only in methionine, which can be supplied from wheat or corn. Soybeans are eaten in numerous ways--as a green or dried bean and as the constituent of soy milk, curds, cheese, and various sauces--and are a major source of vegetable oil. Soybean protein is increasingly used as a meat imitation, or meat substitute. Soybean products are also important in animal feeds, and the green crop is used for hay, forage, and as a fertilizer. In addition, a number of industrial uses have been developed: the manufacture of glycerin, paints, soaps, linoleum, rubber substitutes, plastics, and printing ink.
In the United States, almost half of the soybean oil produced is used in margarine and shortening, and another 20 percent is used to make other food products. Almost all of the soybean meal, the high-protein residue from the processing of soybean oil, is used to feed poultry and livestock.
Principal Areas of Cultivation
The world's four major national producers of soybeans are the United States, which produces almost 50 percent of the world crop (mainly in the Corn Belt and the South), and Brazil, China, and Argentina, which together account for more than one-third of the world's production. Minor producing countries, where soybeans are of some consequence, include Canada, Indonesia, Mexico, India, Paraguay, and the far east regions of Russia.
Drought can depress soybean-production totals significantly. In 1980, for example, the worldwide soybean harvest fell--from the previous year's 90 million metric tons--to 80 million metric tons because of drought. World production figures reached their highest level in the early 1990s, well over 100 million metric tons annually.
Strophanthus {struh-fan'-thuhs} is an alkaloid drug used as a heart stimulant and as an arrow poison. It is obtained from dried, ripe seeds of several tropical species in the plant genus Strophanthus, of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae. These shrubs and vines are native to tropical South Africa and Asia; a few species are grown as ornamentals. Jane Philpott
The sumacs are shrubs, vines, or small trees of the genus Rhus, family Anacardiaceae. They are usually deciduous, have simple or compound leaves and small, clustered fruits, and grow in temperate and subtropical regions. The poisonous, whitish-fruited members of this genus--including POISON IVY (R. radicans), POISON OAK (R. toxicodendron), and POISON SUMAC (R. vernix)--can cause skin irritation in humans. The red-fruited sumacs include staghorn sumac (R. typhina) and smooth sumac (R. glabra), all of which grow in the United States. These are harmless, and the fruits are a source of sumac "lemonade."
Virginia creeper is the common name for the woody vine Parthenocissus quinquefolia of the family Vitaceae. Native to eastern North America, this vine climbs by means of tendrils and is sometimes used, like ivy, to cover external walls. Its leaves usually have five leaflets and turn red in autumn.
Watermelon is an annual trailing vine, Citrullus vulgaris, of the cucumber family, Cucurbitaceae, native to Africa and now grown in warm regions throughout the world for its large, sweet-fleshed fruits. The fruit was introduced into North America during the 16th century. In the United States the leading producers are Florida and Texas. Watermelon vines are tender to frost and require a long growing season. The number of fruits per vine varies from 2 to 15, and the weight of each watermelon ranges from 1.4 kg (3 lb) to 22.5 kg (50 lb). Depending on the variety, the flesh color may be red, pink, yellow, or white.
Wisteria {wis-tir'-ee-uh} is the generic and common name for 9 or 10 species of woody lianas in the pea family, Leguminosae. Native to temperate Asia and North America, they are grown extensively as ornamental vines. The twining stems support alternate leaves and small, attractive, pea-shaped flowers.
Woodbine is the common name of several woody vines and twining shrubs, including the approximately 15 species of Parthenocissus in the grape family, Vitcaceae. These high-climbing, deciduous vines include the VIRGINIA CREEPER, P. quinquefolia, and Boston IVY, P. tricuspidata. Other plants called woodbine are the HONEYSUCKLE species Lonicera caprifolium (Italian woodbine) and L. periclymenum (one variety of which is called Dutch woodbine), and the tropical wood rose, Merremia tuberosa.
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