Handout #11: - Other Methods
The philosophy and approach to data collection, analysis and
presentation in qualitative research differs from that of quantitative
research. Qualitative research involves observation of natural events or people
in their natural setting. It is sometimes called observational research or
field research for this reason, but differs from field observations in
experimental research, because no attempt is made to control or manipulate
factors. In addition to observations,
interviews are also utilised in qualitative research. However, the qualitative
researcher does not always start with a clearly defined theory but may form a
theory based on data collected. A theory formed and grounded in data collected
is called grounded theory. The table
below lists major differences between the two approaches.
Contrasting Characteristics of Qualitative and Quantitative Research
(Source: Wiersma, 2000)
|
Qualitative Research Designs |
Quantitative Research Designs |
|
Inductive Inquiry |
Deductive Inquiry |
|
Understanding Social
Phenomena |
Relationships, Effects,
Causes |
|
Atheoretical or Grounded
Theory (not based on existing theory or based on data collected) |
Theory-Based (based on
existing theory) |
|
Holistic Inquiry (concerned
with the big picture) |
Focused on Individual
Variables |
|
Context-Specific |
Context-Free
(Generalisations) |
|
Observer-Participant |
Detached Role of
Researcher |
|
Narrative Description |
Statistical Analysis |
Qualitative research is often concerned with studying a particular
individual, situation or program in depth.
The individual, situation or program so studied is called a case and the
study is called a case study. The case
study attempts to capture the reality of a particular environment at a point in
time. For example, a researcher may study the introduction of GIS on the
operations of an organisation. Two or more cases, that are different in some
way, may be studied for the purpose of making comparisons, build theory or propose
generalisations. Such an approach is called a multiple or collective case
study.
Ethnography is a method developed by anthropologists to study human
culture. It looks in depth at human
behaviour and belief within a well-defined community that shares a common
culture. It was once restricted to
large cultural units such as a tribe. However, in recent times it has been used
to study smaller groups such as kindergarten children and the homeless. The researcher
often studies the group in its natural setting for a very long period of time
observing everyday behaviours to identify cultural norms or beliefs. Ethnography questions generally concern the
link between culture and behaviour and/or how cultural processes develop over
time. UTECH may be the setting for an
ethnographic study that examines the impact of cell phones on university
culture. Similarly an ethnographic study may be conducted in organisations to
determine how organisational culture contributes to success.
The researcher may be participant and become involved in the daily
lives of the group or non-participant observing as an outsider. He/she may be disguised or undisguised.
Devices used to record data include written narratives (complete record of
behaviour), audio, videotapes, checklists and field notes (informal notes).
Limitations of this approach are that private behaviours are not readily
observable and opinions and intentions are not captured.
Phenomenology is used to study an event from the subject’s perspective.
It is used to capture feelings, emotions and experiences. It answers the
question: What is it like to experience ….?
Examples of phenomenological studies could be: What is it like to be a
student at UTECH? What is it like to
care for a dying relative? What is it
like to be a victim of extortion?
Lengthy interviews (1-2 hrs) are conducted with a carefully selected
sample of about 5 to 25 individuals.
The researcher must remove all biases and listen with an open mind. In analysing the data the researcher looks
for common themes and groups them.
Secondary data are data collected by other researchers that are
available for use in your research.
¨
Official statistics as produced by the Statistical Institute of Jamaica
(http://www.statinja.com)
e.g. census and consumer price index
¨
Private documents such as letters and diaries
¨
Mass media such as newspapers, magazines, television
¨
Physical material such as garbage, clothing, art.
¨
Data from previous research
Steps in using available data include:
¨
Searching for and procuring the data
¨
Measuring and restructuring key concepts
The data may not be an exact fit because it may have
been collected for a different purpose.
You may therefore have to redefine concepts.
¨
Evaluating data quality
You will need to reconstruct the process by which
the data were collected to determine authenticity, limitations, errors and
biases.
¨
Assessing data completeness
This must be done to determine the extent to which
findings can be generalised.
¨
Collection of the data does not result in a reaction from the subject
¨
Allows the past to be studied and understood
¨
It is less expensive
¨
Allows more ground to be covered in less time
¨
May not be accurate. Need to
ensure that source is authentic.
¨
The assumptions may not be clear and may not be applicable to your
situation.
Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J.E. (2001) Practical Research – Planning and
Design (7th ed.). New Jersey:
Merrill Prentice Hall.
Wiersma, W. (2000). Research Methods in Education – An Introduction. (7th ed.) Boston: Allyn and Bacon.