Goldwork embroidery was a dramatic statement of wealth and power in the Middle Ages. From the tombs of pharaohs to the vestments of clergy—from the pomp of kings to the ostentatious display of the wealthy, its technique evolved as it spread across continents.

It is speculated to have originally traveled with silk merchants from Asia. References to a cloth of gold are found in the bible—linking goldwork embroidery to Egyptian, Assyrian, and Babylonian cultures. One such cloth of gold (which was woven rather than embroidered) was found in the tomb of Empress Honorius, who died in 400AD. It was melted down to 36 lbs. of pure metal.

One of the earliest known surviving examples of embroidered goldwork is the St. Cuthbert maniple from the 10^th century. On this maniple the metallic fibers were added on to the surface of the fabric rather than woven into it. In fact, in subsequent years, they often used two layers of fabric to strength and support the stitches—generally linen for underneath with a richer silk on the surface.

The first metallic threads were pure beaten gold cut into strips. These strips were later wrapped around materials such as silk, parchment, animal gut or paper. More surprising is that in the 13^th century, English ladies actually prepared their own gold thread before working it, and from descriptions, it appears to be the same kind of thread used today—gold that was twisted around a core of flax or silk. Because pure gold was so brittle, most gold threads eventually were gold over silver to help maintain its strength. Sally Saunders best describes this process in the Royal School of Needlework Embroidery Techniques:

Besides passing thread (gold over a core of silk, etc.) and coiled tubes (purls), gold was worked into textiles using a variety of different shapes. A mitre from the 1400s contains 3-dimensional gold jugs, stars, and halos, and on a seal purse of Elizabeth I (1560), we find gold sequins, purls, passing thread, and twisted braid. Different shapes allowed the embroiderer to work more depth and breadth into a project. Padding helped to amplify this affect by raising the embroidery off the surface and creating a third dimension with felt or thick cotton threads.

Whether it be subtle outline work, brilliant solid fillwork, or the above mentioned raised work, the idea was to create varying plays on light and producing graduated shading. The most economical and common form was couching. It prevented waste of precious material by having little to no gold thread fall beneath the surface—the gold threads would be tacked down with a linen or silk thread—thus allowing the viewer the full advantage of the metallic threads. As embroiderers used couching, they discovered that the placement of the grounding stitches could change the effect of the reflectivity—thus various angles and zigzags began to become more common. They often used colored silks (red and blue are most common) to enhance these effects even more.

Another technique was underside couching. In this method, when the grounding thread passes back through the cloth it brought a small loop of metal with it, thus concealing the grounding thread and anchoring the metal to the fabric (the secret is to have the grounding thread pass back down through the same hole it came up in). Underside couching allowed greater flexibility of movement by basically creating a hinge for the metal fiber to move on and protected the fibers from wear. In fact, historians have discovered extant examples where the silk anchoring threads have deteriorated but the underside couching stitches have retained their shape. This has not been the case with surface couching, as they tend to hang loose when the anchoring threads are missing. Underside couching needs to be worked under tension to help with control, but still offers the benefit of changing the patterns by varying the spacing. This method was seen quite extensively throughout the Middle Ages until its decline in the 15^th century. Examples are numerous, but include a red velvet chausible from the 1330-50 which was once owned by the Chichester-Constable family and an alb from 1300-40 England.

Another popular technique during the Middle Ages was or nuè. In this technique, colored thread was couched in solid blocks over metal thread. This secured the metal threads even more securely and allowed the opportunity to create scenes and shading. By varying the spacing and leaving gaps, one could allow for glints of metal threads to show through, thus giving it the name or nue or gold shading. The most famous examples of this technique were the three copes produced by the Order of the Golden Fleece between 1425-1440.

The term opus anglicanum literally means "English work" and generally refers to the embroideries being produced by England from about the 12th C to the 15th. The term may have been derived from the inventories of noble households and churches from the time period that would include in the description of the item the term opus anglicanum, facon d'Engleterre or pluviale de opere anglicano (all meaning the same thing). The renown of English embroiderers to the rest of the continent of Medieval Europe was such that simply stating that it was done by English hands was proof enough of it's value. William of Poitiers, who was the chaplain and chronicler of William the Conqueror writes that state robes embroidered by English woman made all that France and Normandy had beheld of the same kind seem mean by comparison so rich were they with gold embroidery (Kendrick, 2).

The following text provides a narrative timeline of English embroidery from the 9th C through the 15th C. The information contained within is designed to give an overview of the changes that took places and the progression of these changes in embroidery in England. Styles vary from country to country so they may or may not be consistent with what was happening in Germany or France at the same time period.

Opus Anglicanum

The Maaseik (or Maeseyck) Embroidery(2) is one of the earliest surviving examples of English embroidery dated to somewhere between the 8th or 9th C. This was once a chasuble that now resides in the collegiate church of Maeseyck in Beligum. It is proof that not only were Anglo-Saxons capable of doing glorious needlework, but that the skills of English embroiderers existed and were sought after long before Norman Conquest. The embroidery is believed to still survive do to it being a treasured artifact of St. Harlinde and St Relinde who founded the Monasterey of Aldeneyck in the 8th C. The embroidery features two bands of arcades filled with interlacing and animal ornamentation, and two smaller bands decorated with rows of circles containing animals and monogram letters. The work is executed in couched gold thread on a background of colored silks. The passing threads in this piece are made by wrapping hammered gold strips around a core of human hair. There are also small white linen threads suggesting that there were once seed pearls, but all of those have now vanished. Though it has vastly deteriorated over the years, there is still evidence of the great skill with which it was originally executed. The design of the embroidery is consistent with the features of many Anglo-Saxon manuscripts and stone sculptures of the period.

Two of the most well known and beautifully preserved examples of English embroidery prior to the Norman Conquest are the St. Cuthbert Stole and Maniple. It was found in the Tomb of St. Cuthbert and is preserved with other artifacts from the tomb at the Durham Cathedral. It is believed to have been gifted to St. Cuthbert by St Etheldreda, Abbess of Ely, and been embroidered by her own hands. The stole, now incomplete, contains images of the Angus Dei and the Dextera Dei--popular for the time period. There are also full-length figures of several saints and the prophets (some of which remain fully intact and contain the names of the person personified). The work is dated somewhere between the years 906-916. There is also a girdle associated with the piece bearing images of flowers, fruit, small animals and leaves. The embroidery itself is executed using split and stem stitch combined with surface couching using gold thread and colored silks. It has been argued that figure design and foliate ornamentation are comparable to Byzantine and Macedonian art of the ninth century.

During the 10th C, embroidery often decorated robes and vestments, banners, and church hangings. King Harold's banner from Hastings--as described by William Malmesbury--was embroidered with a figure of a man fighting and was wrought in gold and studded with precious stones. Aethelflaed worked the deeds of her husband on an embroidered hanging that was later gifted to the Abbey of Ely. A church in Croyland was given an embroidery worked in gold thread and comprised of birds. The central figures were sewn onto the ground fabric.

In terms of scope and recognition, one of the most distinguished works of medieval embroidery is the Bayeux Tapestry(3). The exact origin and date are much disputed among scholars. And, while it may have been a French creation, it is believed more wholly to be of English work and design. And, because of it's shear size (the embroidery is almost 70 yards long) it is believed by some to have been constructed perhaps fifty years after the conquest. However, there are too many details and minor figures in the piece to have been easily recalled by those who were not part of the battle from the beginning. And, no figures of successors or later generations are featured in the piece. For this reason, we shall put the date of the piece (at least in the planning phases) at about 1077.

Within the Bayeux Tapestry, there are 79 scenes that are interpreted by Latin inscriptions with subordinate scenes and figures in the borders above and below. Over 600 figures and 700 animals can be found on the embroidery as they vividly retell the history of the battle of Hastings. The borders provide a grim and playful commentary but feature mostly rustic pursuits along with real and imaginary animals. The "tapestry" (an erroneous title given that the decoration is applied to the surface rather than woven into the fabric itself) is comprised of 6 pieces joined together and the embroidery is executed in colored wools (Originally, red, greens, blues, yellow, and buff though many of these have darkened) using laid and couched work along with outline and stem stitch. It provides a wealth of information about life during the time period as it shows famous figures, places, regalia, armor, weapons, fashion, tables, as well as tasks like tree-felling, ship building, foraging, hunting, cooking, feasting, ploughing, etc. There is even a scene in which Halley's Comet appears as it did at the time.

After the Norman Conquest fine embroideries continued to be produced in England, at first in the Romanesque style. (Bulky figures which carelessly show movement and expression) Much of what survives (including data and extant pieces) is ecclesiastical in nature. Two fragments found at the Durham Cathedral, which have similar design elements to the Bayeux Tapestry, date from about 1081-1096 already begin to show underside couching which would later characterize much of opus anglicanum in later years. The Apparel of an Amice preserved at the Sens Cathedral (from about the mid-12th C) is beginning to show design elements being worked into the couched ground. It contains foliate crosses within a lattice formed by interlaced circles executed in silver-gilt (gold over silver) thread and colored silks.

About the middle of the 12th C, English embroidery began to be known more broadly across the European continent. Inventories and personal accounts describe embroideries that were gifted to a household or church by English hands. In 1170, when St. Thomas was martyred and canonized shortly after, his cult spread quickly and used embroidered liturgical garments as propaganda. One of these was a mitre now preserved at Kloster Seligenthal. On one side is a depiction of the martyrdom of St. Thomas, and St. Stephen's may be seen on the reverse. The mitre is worked in gold thread with silk outlines on white silk twill. While the piece uses underside couching, the figures lack the soft movement and stylization that will become more typical of English embroidery in later years. As is common of this period, the foliate work and draping is showing more steady development than that of the human forms, which give the shape of the actions but not a lot of detail.

As we progress through the 12th C., we begin to see more changes in style and composition. Figures of saints appear beneath rounded arches; images are enclosed within quatrefoils; Michael and Gabriel appear with other popular figures alongside the Virgin and Christ enthroned; and foliate groundwork as well as other natural images are advancing stylistically. The later part of the 12th C, can be characterized in form by the Brunswick cope. Images of the Virgin and of Christ are contained within circles at the top of the cope. Beneath them, angels kneel between formal foliate design. The rest of the ground is powdered with lions, moons, and stars.

As we move into the 13th C., changes in style are becoming more apparent. Now, we see the foliate scroll work that occupies the ground behind the figures become an important design element, and the skill of the execution is beginning to increase. Figures are beginning to assume less rigid poses. Delicate movements are seen first in animal figures, however, embroiderers are paying more attention to achieving more realistic representations. Embroideries related to the Shrine of St. Edmund (1234-1240) show the figures of the angel Gabriel and the Virgin interacting with each other with small, tentative movements though the rest of the embroider is still in the more rigid Romanesque style. This movement is also further echoed in the Clare Chasuble (1272-1294). This chasuble is noteworthy, as it is where we see faces being worked in spirals of split stitch for the first time.

With the Vatican Cope (1280-1300) we see for the most part displays of stiffly drawn figures, yet these figures show vivid facial expressions and dramatic gestures characteristic of English art in the period. This embroidery executed in silver-gilt thread and colored silks in couching, laid work, underside couching and split stitch also uses an arrangement of eight pointed stars and crosses common among tile makers and is also found on a 13th C vestibule in West-Minster Abbey. The cope is made up of panels containing images of religious figures and six-winged angels are placed between these panels (a theme that would be common up until the Reformation). Towards the end of the of the 13th C, this technique of placing scenes of a cope within shaped panels is a common arrangement, and the it continued well in to the 14th C. This technique may also be seen in contemporary paintings and manuscripts.

On the Syon Cope (1300-1320) a softer style of drawing is noticeable and the figures themselves adopt more graceful attitudes while maintaining strong emotions. Styles within the cope relate to the Vatican cope and seal bags from about 1319. Originally it was a bell-shaped chasuble but when it was made into a cope they added a border of coats of arms of English families done in metallic threads and colored silks in underside couching, cross and plait stitch on linen. The rest of the chasuble is made up of interlaced barbed quatrefoils with the apostles and other divine figures in various scenes on a red background. The cross-shaped spaces in between feature angels and clerics. These are done with metallic and silk threads in split stitch, laid, and couched work along with underside couching. The kneeling cleric figures may represent the priest for whom the vestment was made as is common in medieval art.

In the earlier part of the 14th C, we see more development in the forms of the shaped compartments that images are contained within. One of the highest examples of this is the Steeple-Ashton Cope from 1310-1340, with its barbed quatrefoils composed of branches of ivy enclosing scenes of the martyrdom of saints. This cope contains highly whimsical figures that show beautiful character and animation. Another popular variant from the early 1300s of the shaped compartment theme, is the Tree of Jesse, in which, a vine springs forth from a sleeping Jesse at the bottom of the cope or orphrey and then branches out enclosing figures of the ancestors of Christ.

At this same time, another design theme emerged that would dominate much of the first half of the 14th C--concentric rows of arcades containing images of saints and the Holy family graduate across the entire cope. The first appearance of this is on the cope of the Virgin at St-Bertraud-de-Comminges. The three most famous examples of these are the Pienza, Bologna, and the Toledo copes from about 1315-1335. These three copes have much in common with each other and with the contemporary East Anglian School of Manuscripts. Each cope displays the arcading mentioned above and every available space, from the zones themselves, spandrels, ornamentation on the structure of the arcades, and the backgrounds is filled with rich design that succeeds in not distracting from the main themes. The figures are executed in delicate color and vivid expressive movement in silver-gilt threads and colored silks.

While these copes display the splendor of the period, one piece should be mentioned for it's scope and contrasting solemnity. The John of Thanet Panel from 1300-1320 shows Christ enthroned beneath an arch on a dark blue ground powdered with rampant lions. It is notable, as the central figure is over 2 feet tall--larger than any other extant example of Medieval English embroidery.

In the second quarter of the 14th C, velvet came into fashion as a background. Figures were often worked on another fabric and then applied to the ground, or a layer of linen or silk was placed directly on the pile and cut away when the embroidery was finished to assist the embroiderer in overcoming the difficulties of working on a textured ground. At this time, figures were typically slender with graceful attitudes, and designs feature a wealth of detail. Two very similar pieces (dating from 1330-1350)--the Butler Bowden Cope and the Chichester-Constable Chausable--are some of the finest surviving pieces from this period. The images are very similar in both, as we see two very common saints prominently featured (St Edmund of Bury and St Edward the Confessor), as well as other sacred scenes, apostles, in concentric zones, and arches of multi-foil ogee adorned with oak sprigs and lion heads. Angels holding stars can be found in the spandrels. A similar cope once belonged to Jean, Duc de Berry. The standard silver and silver-gilt threads may be found along with colored silks, underside couching, laid and raised work, French knots, Satin and split stitch, as well as pearls, green beads, and gold rings enriching the details.

About the middle of the 14th C, we see changes to Perpendicular style. The arcading is still used but the zones are wider and fatter. The figures are much more stiffly drawn and often grouped in more contorted angular poses. The skill in execution remains as evidenced by the minute stitches, however, the gold backgrounds are much more severe with mechanical almost dull patterns. The decorative details and study of the natural world is still present. Regardless, soon after this, the great achievements of the workers of opus anglicanum came to an end with the Black Death of 1348 and the ravages of the Hundred Years War. For the most part, guilds had helped maintain the standard of craftsmanship of Medieval English embroidery with long apprenticeships and rules restricting how techniques were to be carried out. It seems, though, that the demand for embroidered vestments was greater than the number of skilled workers available at the time. In 1423, Commons petitioned Henry VI regarding bad materials and overall deterioration in the quality of work.

More velvets and brocades are being used as ground for works of this time. This is due to the increasingly strong trade relations between England and Italy. Rich silk and gold fabrics are starting to give the larger share of decorative effects than the embroidery itself. There are no complete English embroidered vestments surviving from the latter part of the 14th C. From descriptions and fragments, we know that the embroideries of this time were of a sumptuous character though they show clumsiness in form and design. Many of the figures are exaggerated in size, lacking expression and character. The backgrounds of gold are often partially raised and worked in simple diaper patterns. Underside couching has been completely abandoned. Pairs of saints become the standard popular theme along with scenes from the live of the Virgin and her family. This carries over into the 15th C.

In the 1400s, we see more variety in the stitches being used--raised work, satin stitch, and brick stitch are all becoming popular additions next to the standard couching and split stitch. More of the work is being done on linen and then applied to rich Italian

velvets, silks, and damasks. While the English embroideries are still being regarded as having a character all their own, the term "English work" doesn't carry the same weight that it once held. In the last fifty years, before the Reformation, English vestments tended to exhibit a sameness and lack of artistic impulse. While beautifully executed (one cannot disregard the quality of the work), the viewer isn't as easily captivated by the story unfolding in the embroidery as it appears to contain more decorative elements than narrative. This may be seen in a chausable now on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art that dates from the late 15th C, featured at the right. It is similar to a panel of the same time period featuring fleur-de-lis, angels, and thistles. These elements, all embroidered in colored silk and silver-gilt threads, are appliquéd onto the red velvet foundation, on which the scrolls and other designs—accented with attached minute silver-gilt rings or shot—are embroidered directly.

By the mid-15th C, Flanders had taken in the lead in embroidery with or nue, and much of their influence began moving northward into England with solid/thickset figures and full draperies. And, though one of the greatest periods of medieval embroidery began to draw to a close, one can not forget the remarkable achievements made in England by modern embroiderers' medieval counterparts.

1. On a silk dalmatic of the Holy Roman Empire (dating from 1130-40), we find minute gold tubes used to fill in a motif outlined by pearls similar to the bullions and/or purls described above.

2. Images may be found at:

3. Image may be found at:

http://www.sjolander.com/viking/museum/bt/bt.html

Agnus Dei--Lamb of God

Dextera Dei--Hand of God

Romanesque Style--Style characterized by sever, heavy figures of a forceful and structural nature. It is sometimes described as bulky. It was expressed in terms of a direct and naive observation of certain details drawn from daily life and a heightened emphasis on emotion and fantasy. Manuscript illumination of the Romanesque period was characterized by a vast enlargement of the traditional fund of pictorial imagery, although in terms of overall execution and calligraphic quality Romanesque illuminated books often show a certain carelessness and lack of refinement

Spandrels--Space between the arcades

• http://www.bartleby.com/65/ro/Romanesq.html

• http://copies.anglicansonline.org/churchtimes/000519/feat.htm

• http://www.sjolander.com/viking/museum/bt/bt.htm

• Syon Cope

http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_hotspot05.html

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/church_reformation/nations_britain_01.shtml

http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text05.html

• http://images.vam.ac.uk/

• http://www.metmuseum.org

• http://www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/S1b-Cope.jpg
• http://www.sca.org.au/cunnan/wiki/bayeuxtapestry

• Syon Cope

http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_hotspot05.htm

More information can be found at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/church_reformation/nations_britain_01.shtml

http://www.vam.ac.uk/vastatic/microsites/bbchistory/object_text05.htm

• http://images.vam.ac.uk/

• http://www.metmuseum.org

• http://www.christusrex.org/www1/vaticano/S1B-Cope.jpg

• http://www.sca.org.au/cunnan/wiki/bayeuxtapestry