The Complete Conquest:

A History of the Jews

by

Roger Thomas

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Ø Creating a Political Culture

Ø Dominion

Ø From Power to Authority

Ø Legitimization

Ø Consent

Ø The Social Compact in Hellenic and Western Traditions

Ø The Social Compact in Confucian and Chinese Traditions

Ø The Jewish Covenant

Ø Hypothesis

THE GENERALIZED OTHER

Ø Abramic Covenant

Ø Isaac

Ø Jacob

Ø Formation of the Tribes

DOMINION

Ø Moses

Ø The Distribution of the Tribes

Ø Suzerainty Treaty

Ø Monarchies

LEGITIMATION

CONSENT

Ø Talmudism

Ø Karaism

Ø Kabalism

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION

Lowi's "Incomplete Conquest" - a Summary

In 1981 Theodore J. Lowi proposed that the act of governing was a form of continuous conquest.⁽¹⁾ This conquest begins by bringing first the territory, and then the population under dominion.⁽²⁾ Once dominion has been established the government sustains power through socialization and coercion.⁽³⁾

A government is founded when its ability to implement its decisions changes from power to an authority which includes some aspired good.⁽⁴⁾ The founding is legitimized when both the values and the mechanisms of command become crystallized into a workable form.⁽⁵⁾ The values reflect the standards, or the aspirations of the society. The mechanisms of command are the tools by which the government's policies and decisions are made.

When a government is founded, its basis changes from control by coercion and socialization to consent in which the population perceives that their interests are being taken into account in the decision making process.⁽⁶⁾ This concept of consent of the governed is the first reason why conquest can never be complete.

Demands are placed on the government through interest groups. James Madison originally believed that such groups were individuals competing for power.⁽⁷⁾ Modern authors believe interest groups are communal, and seek accommodation.⁽⁸⁾ Under either theory, interest groups are people who are seeking policies which implement decisions which the group seeks.⁽⁹⁾

The demands placed on the government by new members and new generations are dynamic, and reflect the changes in the times. Politics is the resolution of conflict by a government-imposed solution.⁽¹⁰⁾

Demands change as needs change, so the government must routinely demonstrate that it still has the right to assert control. Popular consent to the government's control is the people's willingness to be governed because they perceive that their interests are being taken into account.⁽¹¹⁾ In this way conquest is incomplete forever.

Occasionally issues become sufficiently important that the founding documents are amended.⁽¹²⁾ But this is only occasionally, because most issues which confront the society are resolved through custom and practice.⁽¹³⁾

Foreign policy is the means of maintaining conquest,⁽¹⁴⁾ and domestic policy is the means of updating conquest.⁽¹⁵⁾

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CHAPTER 1

THE GENERALIZED OTHER

Abramic Covenant:

"Jewish history dates from the day, four thousand years ago, when a man named Abraham had an encounter with God, known to him as Jehovah. The dialogue between Jew and God begins then. This continuing dialogue is the history of the Jews, with the rest of the world as interested eavesdroppers."⁽²²⁴⁾

"At this encounter between Abraham and God, it is God who proposes a covenant to the patriarch, who is now seventy-five years old. If Abraham will follow the commandants of God, then He, in His turn, will take the descendants of Abraham His Chosen People and place them under His protection. We must note here that God does not say that they shall be better - merely that they shall exist as a separate and distinct entity and be His people. How this is to be brought about is not revealed. God at this time stipulates only one commandment, and makes only one promise. The commandment is that all males of His Chosen People must be circumcised on the eighth day after birth, or if converted into the faith, then circumcised upon conversion. The promise is the land of Canaan."⁽²²⁵⁾

"Though many aspects of Jews and Judaism have been changed or modified during their subsequent four-thousand-year history, this idea of a covenant with God has remained constant. This in turn gave rise to a will to survive as Jews, which has been the driving force in Judaism. Without it there can be no Judaism and no Jews. When this concept disappears, when the Jew, through lack of this inner compulsion, no longer wishes to retain his identity as a Jew, then nothing will stand between him and assimilation, between him and his final disappearance. The methods whereby this wish has been perpetuated have changed through the ages; but the aim has not. Jewish history is a succession of ideas designed to perpetuate this aim."⁽²²⁶⁾

The Hebrii wandered in the desert for 400 years between the time of Abraham and that of Moses. During these 400 years they enlarged the Abramic Covenant into their generalized other. They adhered to circumcision. They eliminated human sacrifice. They adhered to an invisible god, and gradually came to monotheism by eliminating their other gods. Since their god was immortal they eliminated resurrection rites and the mythological wars between gods. A god motivated by spirituality had no need for fertility rites. Spirituality also led to inner discipline rather than the need for an abundance of laws.⁽²²⁷⁾

As nomads, they developed no fine arts except some oral traditions of poetry which included as much of their history as we know.⁽²²⁸⁾ They never achieved a legal-rational form of government, and held their chiefs accountable to, rather than above, the covenant.⁽²²⁹⁾

Isaac:

We have less information about Isaac than we do about the other chieftains. But the little information we have indicates that by his generation these tribes and clans were beginning to look away from the nomadic life toward agriculture. The specific evidence of this is that the blessing which Jacob stole from Esau was for agricultural wealth: "May God give you the dew of the earth, and plenty of grain and wine."⁽²³⁰⁾

Although this blessing did not run to Esau, he apparently enjoyed the benefit of it. When Jacob ran from Esau to Laban⁽²³¹⁾ Esau worked the land, so that by the time Jacob returned Esau was able to greet him with 400 retainers.⁽²³²⁾

Jacob:

Another event also happens on Jacob's return to Canaan which becomes of historical significance in the development of the generalized other. When Jacob reaches the mountain at Penuel he is trapped between the perusing Laban⁽²³³⁾ and the defending Esau.⁽²³⁴⁾ He has been in exile for some 20 years. Lacking a single ally or friend, he turns to God.⁽²³⁵⁾ After his conversion, Jacob reaches a covenant of distrust with his Uncle Laban,⁽²³⁶⁾ who kisses his daughters and grandchildren goodbye⁽²³⁷⁾ and fades away forever. Jacob turns now to face Esau. Esau rejects both his bribe⁽²³⁸⁾ and his kowtow,⁽²³⁹⁾ and greets him as a brother into Canaan.⁽²⁴⁰⁾ Jacob does not stay with Esau,⁽²⁴¹⁾ but a permanent change has taken place; Jacob is now Israel,⁽²⁴²⁾ and the patriarchal ties with Mesopotamia are permanently severed.⁽²⁴³⁾ Israel settled in the land,⁽²⁴⁴⁾ and the patriarchal wanderings ceased.

Formation of the Tribes:

The last chieftains we have record of are Joseph and his brothers. The development of these sub-tribes, or clans, becomes very important in Israeli history. Jacob was in love with Rachel, but was conned into marrying Leah first.⁽²⁴⁵⁾ The eldest children, 1) Ruben, 2) Simeon, 3) Levi, and 4) Judah were given to Leah.⁽²⁴⁶⁾ The barren Rachel then sent in her handmaiden, Bilhah, to Jacob and bore 5) Dan and 6) Naphtali.⁽²⁴⁷⁾ Leah was not to be out done, so she provided Jacob with her handmaiden, Zilpah, and 7) Gad and 8) Asher were born.⁽²⁴⁸⁾ With the help of some mandrakes, Leah next conceived 9) Issachar and 10) Zebulun, and Dinah.⁽²⁴⁹⁾ Only then did Rachel conceive, so 11) Joseph was born.⁽²⁵⁰⁾ Only 12) Benjamin was born - to Rachel - inside of Canaan.⁽²⁵¹⁾

The conduct of the chieftains is easily demonstrated in the story of Dinah.⁽²⁵²⁾ When the city of Shechem defiled the clan to which Dinah had gone, two of the Leah clans destroyed the city. Jacob's only fear was that this attack would result in a coalition among the Canaanites and Perizzites who could easily destroy all of Israel.⁽²⁵³⁾ But the bond which existed among the Israelite clans was not matched among the Canaanite and Perizzite towns. Although Israel had to fight together to survive,⁽²⁵⁴⁾ the towns could survive alone.

CHAPTER 2

DOMINION

It is not clear, and almost immaterial, how the Hebrii came to be in Egypt. One argument is that as the Egyptian empire expanded to Gaza, certain Hebrii tribes came under Egyptian dominion.⁽²⁵⁵⁾ Another theory is that there was a famine in Canaan and some of the clans sought comfort in Egypt⁽²⁵⁶⁾ while others toughed it out in Canaan.⁽²⁵⁷⁾ A "funner" theory is that the Hebrii were among the Hyksos, from Canaan and Syria, who conquered Egypt in 1730 BCE.⁽²⁵⁸⁾ Whichever of these is correct, the story of Joseph's captivity and ascendancy⁽²⁵⁹⁾ tends to favor the Hyksos time frame. A Semite Hyksos would be more inclined to look with favor on another Semite than an Egyptian would.⁽²⁶⁰⁾

It is also informative to later Israeli history that when Joseph tattled to Jacob it was about the tribes of "the sons of Bilhah and Zilpah"⁽²⁶¹⁾ and that only Simeon - among the Leah tribes -appears to have participated in the conspiracy to throw Joseph in the well.⁽²⁶²⁾

In any event, with the coming of the 19th dynasty⁽²⁶³⁾ the Semites inside Egypt were pressed into servitude.⁽²⁶⁴⁾ Out of this came an event in Jewish history which the Chinese were not able to achieve until the Great Learning following the Warring States Period⁽²⁶⁵⁾ and the Christians were not able to achieve at either the General Council at Nicaea under Caesar Constantine the Great⁽²⁶⁶⁾ or at the Council of Trent under Emperor Charles V.⁽²⁶⁷⁾ His name was Mosheh.⁽²⁶⁸⁾

Moses:

Moses was an administrator and prince⁽²⁶⁹⁾ who fled Egypt after killing one of Pharaoh's guards.⁽²⁷⁰⁾ He studied under Jethro the Medianite⁽²⁷¹⁾ until he learned the generalized other of the Abramic tribes.⁽²⁷²⁾ While on Mount Horeb he felt called to return to Egypt⁽²⁷³⁾ to extricate the six⁽²⁷⁴⁾ Hebrii tribes who were enslaved there. He led these tribes from Egypt⁽²⁷⁵⁾ and possibly back to the same mountain at which he had been called.⁽²⁷⁶⁾ There he received the law.⁽²⁷⁷⁾ He then led the people through the desert⁽²⁷⁸⁾ and along the borders of their Esau cousins until they arrived at the Jordan River which separated them from the Promised Land.⁽²⁷⁹⁾ During these years of wandering he applied the law which had been given to him until it was inculcated into the generation which arrived at the Promised Land.⁽²⁸⁰⁾

"The central point in the Moses story ... is the giving of the Law, the establishment of the Mosaic Code. Everything before this has been a prelude. Everything after this is an anticlimax. This bringing forth the Law was the very act of bringing forth a new nation. Indeed, the grand design of the entire Book of Exodus resembles that of primitive tribal initiation rites, but on a high, ethical, symbolic plane. Before the young males in a primitive tribe can join adult society, they have to go through initiation rites which have these five elements in common: a symbolic death; a symbolic rebirth; a symbolic mutilation uniting them into a brotherhood; a new name given to each initiated member; and, finally revelation of the tribal laws. forty years of wandering in the Sinai desert by the Jews under the leadership of Moses, during which time the old generation died out and a new generation was born represents the symbolic death and rebirth in the "initiation rite" of Exodus. All males are then circumcised. Next the Hebrews are given a new name, the People of Israel. Finally, the new law, the Torah, is revealed to them.

"The Torah was a bold leap into the future, a giant stride ahead of anything existing at that time. Its concept (was) of equality before the law, a law based on a written code, ...

"The Mosaic Code ... was the first truly judicial, written code, and eclipsed previously known laws with its all-encompassing humanism, its passion for justice, its love of democracy. It also helped to establish a new Jewish character and directed Jewish thinking into new paths which tended to set the Jews further apart from their neighbors.

"The ideological content of these Mosaic laws is of great interest. Here we find the Jewish concept of the state and philosophy of the law. These laws were essentially divided into three categories: those dealing with man's relation to man, those dealing with man's relation to the state, and those dealing with man's relation to God."⁽²⁸¹⁾

In dealing with things secular and things temporal, the Mosaic Code innovated the idea of separation of church and state. "Civil authority was independent of the priesthood. Though it is true that the priesthood had the right to settle cases not specifically covered by Mosaic law,⁽²⁸²⁾ that did not place it above the civil government. The priesthood was charged with the responsibility of keeping this government within the framework of Mosaic law, just as the United States Supreme Court is not above the federal government but is, nevertheless, charged with the responsibility of keeping it within the framework of the Constitution. Moses also ... created an independent judiciary."⁽²⁸³⁾

The underlying importance of the Mosaic Code was that "it signified subordinating sense perception to an abstract idea; it was the triumph of spirituality over the senses."⁽²⁸⁴⁾ "By making God spiritual instead of material the Jews were left free to change the spirituality of God instead of merely altering his physical appearance."⁽²⁸⁵⁾ It also made God mobile and portable.

The Distribution of the Tribes:

"When Moses brought the Israelites into the land of Canaan, the task of the Judges, Kings and Prophets became, as we shall see, one of welding these two peoples (the Hebrews of Abraham and the Israelites of Moses) into one unified nation and these two cults into one religion."⁽²⁸⁶⁾

The distribution of the tribes in Israel, as shown on the enclosed map, raises the likelihood that there was more than one incursion into Canaan. The Leah tribes are concentrated around the Dead Sea, with Zebulun and Issachar separated from them by the Rachel tribes. The tribes of Leah's handmaiden, Zilpah, were adjacent to the Leah tribes, and Dan and Naphatali were adjacent to the Rachel tribes.

Eduard Meyer asserts that the J1 document, which was written during Solomon's reign to explain that king's succession to the throne,⁽²⁸⁷⁾ told of the Israelites journeying directly to Kadesh

from the Reed Sea. J1 was then elaborated by a later writer, J2, who added the material telling of the journey of Israel to Sinai and of the lawgiving there.⁽²⁸⁸⁾

It is possible that the Leah tribes invaded Canaan from the south,⁽²⁸⁹⁾ as early as the 15th Century BCE, at about the time of the eruption of Mt. Santorini.⁽²⁹⁰⁾ This would have been when the 18th Dynasty was driving out the Hyksos, and cared little about events in Canaan.⁽²⁹¹⁾ These Leah tribes would have known nothing of Mt. Sinai. Also, their invasion would have established dominion over existing people and created the Zilpah tribes.

The Rachel tribes then invaded from Jericho, isolated Zebulun and Issachar from the other Leah tribes, and established dominion over the Bilhah tribes which were of Rachel's handmaiden. The Rachel tribes would have been familiar with both Joseph and Mt. Sinai which became the critical contribution of J2.

In the northern corner of Palestine were three tribes; Asher, Naphatali, and Northern Dan, who were entirely handmaidens. They were unfamiliar with either Kadesh or Jericho, and alleged that Canaan had been entered at Adamah near the junction of the Jabbock and the Jordan.⁽²⁹²⁾ They contributed the E tradition.

There were two other distinctions among these tribes which became critical during the physical phase of the dominion process. The southern Leah tribes were poorer, and were isolated from the main course of history around them. The Way to the Land of the Philistines followed the coastline and served as the main route for both caravans and marching armies. The Way to Shur took the east side of the mountains through Beer-sheba and Hebron. An almost solid wall of hills blocks the way from Jerusalem east to Gezer, which is among the reasons these highways took their chosen routes. The passes and the coastal plain around Gezer remained firmly in Canaanite control.⁽²⁹³⁾ The bulk of the Leah tribes were between these routes, and below the wall of hills, until the time of the monarchy. In contrast, the Rachel and handmaiden tribes were neither poor nor isolated from the world around them.

The second distinction was that the Leah tribes did not have the strong sense of "states rights"⁽²⁹⁴⁾ that the Rachel and handmaiden tribes did. Judah, Simeon, and Levi all shared a common territory,⁽²⁹⁵⁾ whereas the Rachel and handmaiden tribes spent a substantial amount of time fighting with each other.⁽²⁹⁶⁾

During the amphictyony⁽²⁹⁷⁾ of the Judges, only Othniel⁽²⁹⁸⁾ came from the Leah tribes. Although Ruben and Gad were required to march with Joshua,⁽²⁹⁹⁾ neither they nor Judah\Simeon participated in the battle against Sisera at Kishon.⁽³⁰⁰⁾ Neither the southern nor the trans-Jordan tribes fought under Gideon.⁽³⁰¹⁾ The trans-Jordan tribes had to fight the Ammonites alone under Jephthah.⁽³⁰²⁾ Dan had to establish a new colony at Laish because they could neither withstand the pressure from the Philistines nor could they rely on help from the other tribes.⁽³⁰³⁾

Suzerainty Treaty:

During the time of Prince Mosheh it was common for political overlords to enter into suzerainty treaties with their dependant states.⁽³⁰⁴⁾ These treaties were based on oaths and bonds. They contained a promise to do something, and an oath which would bring the curse of the gods on the one who broke the promise. They were usually made up of 1) a preamble, 2) a historical prologue, 3) demands and stipulations, 4) provisions for depositing the text and for its periodic public reading, 5) a list of divine witnesses to the treaty, and 6) blessings and curses.⁽³⁰⁵⁾ The covenant at Mt. Sinai took the form of a suzerainty treaty.

"The text was the Decalogue--a suzerainty treaty, with YHWH as suzerain and the people as vassal:

PREAMBLE. "God spoke all these words, saying..."

HISTORICAL PROLOGUE. "I am the Lord your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt..."

DEMANDS FOR STIPULATIONS. "You shall have no other gods besides Me. You shall not..."

DEPOSIT OF THE TEXT AND PUBLIC READING. There are no provisions for this in the Decalogue itself. But later, in Exodus 25:16, we read, "And deposit in the ark the Pact which I will give you." Exodus 40:20 reads, "He took the Pact and placed it in the ark...." In Deuteronomy 10:5, Moses is reported to have written, "Then I left and went down from the mountain, and I deposited the tablets in the ark that I had made, as the Lord had commanded me; and there they remain."

THE DIVINE WITNESSES. There are no other gods beside YHWH--this is a fundamental transformation in thought and belief, and an abrupt turn by our species toward a new horizon. YHWH is beyond man and nature, yet compassionate and caring for His people, concerned with the welfare of slaves and strangers. I have found no way of connecting this new vision of man and his relationship to the cosmos through a chain of evolutionary causality, a link of logic with past ideas. It is an epiphany, an inductive leap of extraordinary seminality, or a vaulting of the imagination--call it what you wish. The people at the foot of that mountain, as well as millennia of their offspring, believed that the covenant had been given to them by YHWH. And neither YHWH nor His people could have other gods as witnesses. Still, in Deuteronomy 30:19, heaven and earth are invoked as natural witnesses to a later covenant code, "I call heaven and earth to witness against you this day"; and, in Deuteronomy 32:1, the Song of Moses beings, "Give ear, O heavens, let me speak; Let the earth hear the words I utter!" We remember the words in the Hittite treaty, "All the gods and goddesses of the Hatti land...the mountains, the rivers...heaven and earth...." Mesopotamian treaties carried similar terminology long after the Hittites had disappeared.

BLESSINGS AND CURSES. Perhaps the words "I the Lord your God am an impassioned God, visiting the guilt of the fathers upon the children..."constitute a form of curse. The covenant code in Deuteronomy 30:19 reads, "I have put before you life and death, blessing and curse."

THE FORMAL OATH. "We will do and obey!"

THE SOLEMN CEREMONY. The sacrifice of the bulls; the sprinkling of the blood. And the brief scene in which the elders "beheld God, and they ate and drank."

The clans covenanted to become vassals of YHWH and to be joined to one another by a sanctified treaty. They retained the freedom to govern their inner lives. No clan had dominion over another.⁽³⁰⁶⁾

After physical dominion had been initiated over the territory which God had given to the patriarchs, a grateful Joshua and his people again covenanted with their God who had fulfilled His promise to give them the land of Canaan. The covenant reaffirmed the Mosaic covenant, and added certain new elements.⁽³⁰⁷⁾

THE PREAMBLE. "Thus speaks the Lord, the God of Israel."

HISTORICAL PROLOGUE. "In olden times, your forefathers...lived beyond the Euphrates and worshiped other gods. And I took your father Abraham from beyond the Euphrates and led him throughout all the land of Canaan...And I sent Moses and Aaron, and I plagued Egypt...And I brought your fathers out of Egypt...And I gave you a land whereon you had not labored, and cities which you had not built..." No mention was made of the patriarchs in the Mosaic covenant, for that covenant was directed solely at those who had undergone the slave experience. Here at Shechem the entire people was being fused together--those who had remained in Canaan and possessed strong memories of the patriarchal traditions, and those whose ancestors had once been slaves and who now brought with them tales of Egypt, memories of Moses and a long wandering, and wilderness traditions.

DEMANDS OR STIPULATIONS. "Now therefore fear the Lord, and serve Him in sincerity and in truth; and put away the gods which your fathers served beyond the Euphrates, and in Egypt; and serve the Lord..." Only YHWH was God. Other gods had no role to play in the cosmos; they were non-gods, bits of wood and stone. The Yahwist Israelite could not comprehend the radiant, eternal connectness the pagan felt certain existed between the images he worshiped and the awesome cyclical forces of nature they represented; the believing pagan found utterly incomprehensible the Israelite faith in an imageless, transcendent God who participated in human events and had chosen a small, helpless, and not particularly worthy people to be His instrument in an unfolding purposeful history directed by Him and Him alone. It seemed there could be no common meeting ground between these two views of the world.

DEPOSIT OF THE TEXT AND PUBLIC READING. We are told in the twenty-fourth chapter of the Book of Joshua, in which the final literary version of the making of this covenant is found, that Joshua "wrote these words in the book of the law of God." The contents of this book--its additional covenant stipulations and laws--are unknown. Scholars believe that it was kept at the sanctuary in Shechem and read periodically as part of a religious ceremony.

THE DIVINE WITNESSES. "And Joshua said to the people: `You are witnesses against yourself that you have chosen the Lord, to serve Him." And they said: 'We are witnesses...'" This is a curiously innovative move in a monotheistic situation where no divine witnesses are possible. Joshua also constructed a stone to serve as witness, "and set it up there under the oak that was by the sanctuary of the Lord. And Joshua said to all the people: 'Behold, this stone shall be a witness against us; for it has heard all the words of the Lord...'"

BLESSINGS AND CURSES. "If you forsake the Lord, and serve strange gods, then He will turn and do you evil and consume you..."

THE FORMAL OATH. "And the people said to Joshua: 'The Lord our God will we serve, and to His voice will we hearken.'"

THE SOLEMN CEREMONY. None is recorded.

Then the people went away, "every man to his inheritance."

The response to the events of the conquest was the Joshua covenant.

The adoption of this form of treaty to express a unique and growing relationship between a people and its one, invisible God was to become the most distinctive element of the civilization of ancient Israel. The treaty would change its form in order to respond to radically new events. But the basic response, no matter how extraordinary or traumatic the event, would always be--a treaty between God and Israel. The suzerainty covenants of Moses and Joshua were based upon gracious favor and persuasion rather than naked force. The people were given the dignity that comes with freedom of choice, for they could have chosen not to accept the covenant.⁽³⁰⁸⁾

Psychological dominion over the Jewish population had been achieved by Moses, and much of the physical dominion had been accomplished under Joshua and the tribal amphictyony. The defeat at the Battle of Aphek in 1050 BCE, with the accompanying destruction of Shiloh and the capture of the Ark of the Covenant⁽³⁰⁹⁾ however, was a problem the Judges could no longer handle. The Philistines had to be met with a united Israel under a monarch.⁽³¹⁰⁾ So first Saul, then David were appointed judge-king by a priest-prophet.⁽³¹¹⁾ With the ascension and reign of David came a new turn in the Covenant. The Davidic line became the crucial means by which God would enable the people.⁽³¹²⁾

Monarchies:

Just as Moses was Egyptian, so David appears to have been an Edomite.⁽³¹³⁾ Their claim to power was independent of any individual clan. He was crowned first over Judah and then over Israel.⁽³¹⁴⁾ It was at this time that YHWH amended his covenant with the Jews by making David His agent. The house of David was to sit on the throne of Judah forever.⁽³¹⁵⁾

The essence of the history of Israel from David to the Exile can be viewed as the first illustration of Josef Kasten's theory of the history of the Jews in general.⁽³¹⁶⁾

"The greater the straights they happened to be in, the more narrowly and exclusively did their intellectual activities tend to become concentrated upon their inner being and particularly upon the religious foundations of their race."

Kasten's theory, in turn, is a restatement of the explanation of the Jewish story which the Deuteronomic editor inserted as a preface to the Book of Judges.⁽³¹⁷⁾ Wealth begets apostasy. Apostasy begets weakness and oppression. Oppression begets repentance. Repentance begets a deliverer and a national restoration.⁽³¹⁸⁾

When David ascended the throne, the power in Israel rested with the clans. Judah in the south, and Ephraim and Manasseh in the north.⁽³¹⁹⁾ Psychological dominion had been made, especially of the Rachel and Leah tribes, but physical dominion had never been accomplished. "Israelites lived side by side with the Canaanites whom they had overrun but only partly conquered."⁽³²⁰⁾ David unified the population by moving the capital⁽³²¹⁾ and the Ark of the Covenant⁽³²²⁾ to Jerusalem, which he had captured without the express aid of any one clan.⁽³²³⁾ He secured the exterior borders,⁽³²⁴⁾ and ruled for 33 years.⁽³²⁵⁾ But for all his popularity and charismatic leadership, David was not able to maintain domestic tranquility inside of Israel.⁽³²⁶⁾

Solomon rose to power as the result of a court conspiracy,⁽³²⁷⁾ and had been raised inside a king's court rather than among the population. He accepted the crown of Judah and tendered ceremonial courtesy to the northern tribes.⁽³²⁸⁾ His primary effort was toward building the temple⁽³²⁹⁾ and developing the wealth and commerce within the momentary Israeli empire.⁽³³⁰⁾ The second Deuteronomic editor of 1 Kings made Solomon an example of the point which had already been made in the preface to Judges; his wealth begot apostasy.⁽³³¹⁾

Solomon became an oriental despot.⁽³³²⁾ He used the corvèe of forced labor⁽³³³⁾ to hold down his expenses. Such corvèes were not new to the Canaanites or other non-Jewish populations within the empire, but they ran very much against the generalized other of the Rachel tribes in particular.⁽³³⁴⁾ He resolved this problem by organizing the empire into 12 administrative districts as shown on the enclosed map. A contrast of this map with the tribal map already provided shows his motives:

Judah was excluded from the administrative districts.

The mountainous portion of Ephraim and West Manasseh were grouped into District I.⁽³³⁵⁾

South Dan, a Bilhah tribe, was given District II.

The costal plain which once belonged to Ephraim and Manasseh was made into District III.

The northern portion of this coastal plain was taken from Manasseh and made into District IV.

Megiddo and the mouth of the Valley of Jezreel were taken from West Manasseh and made into District V.

The more sparsely populated East Manasseh was made into District VI.

Gad, a Zilpah tribe, became District VII.

Naphatali and Northern Dan, being Bilhah tribes, were joined as District VIII.

Asher and Zebulun were joined as District IX.

Issachar, a Leah tribe, was left as District X.

Benjamin was the only Rachel tribe to be left in tact as District XI.⁽³³⁶⁾

Finally, Ruben, a Leah tribe, was left as District XII.

The damage done to the tribal order in Ephraim and West Manasseh was severe. These were the clans which had almost consistently led the amphictyony⁽³³⁷⁾ and which therefore presented the most serious threat to the monarchy. The large District I embraced the poorer mountainous regions of both clans, and their richer areas were then parceled between Districts III, IV, and V. This contrasts with the tribal areas of the Leah and handmaiden tribes being largely respected, the Rachel tribes' land and power was cut up.

Another illustration of Solomon's grasp for oriental despotism was his claim as "Protector of the Faith".⁽³³⁸⁾ He set up conditions by which the worship of YHWH could be reduced to a ritualistic worship with prescribed ceremonies and practices. he effectively eliminated much of its prophetic element and its involvement in the political decisions of the nation by craftily endorsing and participating in its priestly and liturgical elements.⁽³³⁹⁾ Before Solomon the priests and elders of Israel had to ratify new laws before the king could begin enforcing them, and God would periodically raise up a charismatic critic of the king.⁽³⁴⁰⁾ This did not happen under Solomon; there was a pause in prophecy between the time Nathan faced David⁽³⁴¹⁾ and the time Shemaiah faced the soldiers of Rehoboam.⁽³⁴²⁾ The Nobite priesthoods⁽³⁴³⁾ which reflected the spirit of the Cities of Refuge,⁽³⁴⁴⁾ gave way to the courtesan priesthoods of the Zadokites.⁽³⁴⁵⁾ Religion became an institution. The last element of the suzerainty treaty was broken.

Solomon's son, Rehoboam, went to Shechem to be crowned, but he refused to even tip his hat to tribal rights the way the Hapsburgs did in a later millennium.⁽³⁴⁶⁾ The result was the return of Jeroboam, an Ephraimite⁽³⁴⁷⁾ from Egypt⁽³⁴⁸⁾ and a civil war between the Leah tribes and the Rachel tribes.⁽³⁴⁹⁾ Any hope which Rehoboam had for defeating the Ephraimite rebellion was lost by the intervention of Shishak from Egypt.⁽³⁵⁰⁾

It is an interesting question whether the northern Leah and handmaiden tribes, who did not suffer under the corvèe and the administrative districting like the Rachel tribes, actively participated in the succession.⁽³⁵¹⁾ The question is strengthened by the continued disruption among the Israeli tribes.⁽³⁵²⁾ Two sanctuaries were built, one at the Ephraimite city of Bethel, and the other in the northern city of Dan.⁽³⁵³⁾ As shown on the enclosed map, distinct areas called "Galilee", "Bashan", and "Gilead" existed within Isreal, before the time of Amos.⁽³⁵⁴⁾ Both the early and the writing prophets tended to originate from, and to prophesy in, these areas rather than in Ephraim.⁽³⁵⁵⁾ Different histories were written; J2 by the Rachel tribes, and E by the northern tribes. When the Assyrians reconstructed Samaria, it was located in the mountainous region of the Rachel tribes, with borders surprisingly similar to those of Solomon's District I. Then, when Palestine was organized by the Persians and the Maccabeans, it encompassed the area of Judea and Galilee which had dominant Jewish populations. The point of this more than a curiosity. Lowi's theory of dominion is that first the land, and then the population is conquered. The history of the Jews confirms that this is not always possible. When Joshua led the Rachel tribes into Canaan he was apparently able to force a wedge between Zebulun and Issachar in the north and Judah and Ruben in the south. Although the Rachel tribes exercised a certain hegemony over the northern tribes during the amphictyony, they were never able to bring these tribes under dominion. Zebulun and Issachar in particular continued to perceive themselves as Leah tribes.⁽³⁵⁶⁾ Like the Viking and Norman incursions into British history, the Rachel incursion into Jewish history was indelible, but momentary.

Although the Ephraimites were able to lead the northern tribes out of a united monarchy, there remained a bond among these people which extended back to the Abramic covenant and Kenite theology.⁽³⁵⁷⁾ As Churchill implored the Americans to arms, so Amos, Isaiah and other Judean prophets implored the Israelites to repentance. The JE, D, and P editors all tried to emphasize the commonality of the Jewish experience rather than the deeds of the kings.⁽³⁵⁸⁾ Early in the divided kingdom the two nations tried to unify through arms, after Omri⁽³⁵⁹⁾ they were almost continually in alliance. The movement of the population, and the flow of trade and commerce among Jews within the original borders of the united kingdom remained fluid.⁽³⁶⁰⁾

This commonality became the basis for the idea that a new, divinely appointed, David would arise to lead a united Israel. This too was an extension of the preface to the Book of Judges in which repentance brought deliverance. It is also an extension of the Davidic amendment to the suzerainty treaty. Since Moses, YHWH had consistently provided agents to lead the Jews during times of trouble. When they were nomads these leaders had come up from the people, but now that they were an established population, the leader should be expected to be a crowned head. This beginning of the messianic hope fell first on Jeroboam II who ruled Israel in about 786-746 BCE.⁽³⁶¹⁾ Peace, prosperity, and a kind of unity existed under him which had not been seen since King David. The idea of the messianic hope which was articulated here for the first time by a second Deuteronomic editor⁽³⁶²⁾ was now a permanent part of the Jewish generalized other.

This same commonality of culture between Judah and Isreal became part of the basis of the idea of a remnant of people who would carry on the faith and pursue the covenant given by YHWH.⁽³⁶³⁾ The time of the tribes came to a close with the fall of the kingdoms, in order to make way for the ascendancy of a single Jewish nation. The seed of this nation was the remnant.

The end of both kingdoms related to their involvement with foreign affairs.⁽³⁶⁴⁾ An interesting hindsight could be made regarding both Abraham and Moses that in all four instances the skullduggery involved Egypt. Even from this experience, the Jews did not learn to avoid foreign entanglements. The Roman invasion of Palestine was the result of a failed alliance.⁽³⁶⁵⁾

CHAPTER 3

LEGITIMATION

The exile to Babylonia accomplished several things that the Jews had not been able to accomplish in Israel:

They could only take a portable God with them. The Ugaritic and other foreign idols were destroyed by the invading Assyrian and Chaldean armies. What Hezekiah⁽³⁶⁶⁾ and Josiah⁽³⁶⁷⁾ had not succeeded in doing in Judah, the Chaldeans did for them.

The Canaanites who the Israelis had never cleared from their midst were among the first people exiled.⁽³⁶⁸⁾

Similarly, between 850 and 760 BCE a complete class of plutocrats had arisen above the actual workers.⁽³⁶⁹⁾ These fat cows of Bashan⁽³⁷⁰⁾ were also among the first people exiled.⁽³⁷¹⁾ Only the very poor were left behind.⁽³⁷²⁾ Then, in fear of another invasion, even most of the poor, including Jeremiah, fled to Egypt.⁽³⁷³⁾ The Diaspora actually began in September, 582 BCE, when almost the entire Jewish population had left Israel never to return.⁽³⁷⁴⁾

The second Deuteronomic editor closed the Book of 2 Kings in 560.⁽³⁷⁵⁾ All of the J1, J2, E, D1, and D2 had been written. The JE rapprochement was attempted so there would be one official record of the movement of the hand of YHWH through Jewish history.⁽³⁷⁶⁾ The Jews who went into exile, either into Babylonia or into Egypt a few years later, had gathered Genesis 12-Exodus 20, Numbers 20-Judges 21, 1 Samuel-2 Kings, most of Job, most of the Psalms, at least the first 24 chapters of Proverbs, First Isaiah, Hosea, Amos, Obadiah, Micah, Nahum, and Zephaniah. The suzerainty treaty which had been given to Moses and amended to David, had been implemented by the Judges, priests, kings, and prophets for some 600 years. The people who went into the exile could only carry that part of the treaty which did not involve institutions. The institutions of church and government had been destroyed or left behind.⁽³⁷⁷⁾

In addition to forcing the reduction and rapprochement of the historical, wisdom, and pre-exilic prophetic documents into a portable form, the exile forced an essential change in the perception of the suzerainty treaty by the Jews. Up to the exile, the Jews had a perception of corporate responsibility which ran to the organized nation.⁽³⁷⁸⁾ The pre-exilic prophets had also spoken to the Jews as an organized nation:

Hosea spoke to them as if they were a bride.⁽³⁷⁹⁾

Amos spoke to Israel as a nation, and specifically to its upper class.⁽³⁸⁰⁾

Micah spoke to "the house of Israel" and to "the house of Judah".⁽³⁸¹⁾

Nahum celebrated the fall of Assyria as a spokesperson for Jacob.⁽³⁸²⁾

Obadiah scorned Edom for its interference with Judah's defense against the Chaldeans, and did so as a spokesperson for "the house of Jacob".⁽³⁸³⁾

Zephaniah anticipated the need for the Deuteronomic reforms, and prophesied against the court officials and the royal family.⁽³⁸⁴⁾

First Isaiah was one of the few prophets to work within the royal court,⁽³⁸⁵⁾ but he spoke to Hezekiah as the agent of Judah.⁽³⁸⁶⁾

This sense of henotheology, that YHWH was the God of Israel only,⁽³⁸⁷⁾ began to yield with Amos,⁽³⁸⁸⁾ but it could not survive an exile in which there was no territory of Israel nor a diaspora in which fewer than 20% of the Jews lived in Palestine.⁽³⁸⁹⁾

It fell on Ezekiel and Jeremiah, the prophets who were writing as the exile took place, to explain the suzerainty treaty, with its Davidic amendment,⁽³⁹⁰⁾ in view of the new circumstances. Ezekiel pointed out that the Jews were still the chosen even though their "shepherds" had led them into apostasy and misfortune.⁽³⁹¹⁾ His change to the Davidic amendment was that from that point on, YHWH would personally act as the good shepherd,⁽³⁹²⁾ until a new David became their judge and shepherd.⁽³⁹³⁾

In the absence of the Davidic agent, the territory of Israel, an Ark of the Covenant, and a Temple, it fell upon the individual Jews to find religion inside of themselves.⁽³⁹⁴⁾ To accommodate the need for affirmation, in the absence of either a physical manifestation or the structure of a social institution, the Jews devised the concept of the synagogue.

"Because its use became threefold, the synagogue itself was known by three names, depending upon which service it performed - Beth Tephila, the "House of Prayer"; Beth Hamidrash, the "House of Study"; and Beth Haknesseth, the "House of Assembly". This expansion of the Jewish religious framework to include prayer, learning, and government set the pattern for yet other concepts to come - namely, standard prayer books and liturgy, universal education, freedom of assembly, and self-government in exile."⁽³⁹⁵⁾

The new form of cultus provided by the synagogue has ever since made religious exercise possible for a scattered people.⁽³⁹⁶⁾

When the locus of international power passed to the Persians, their doctrine of voluntary repatriation extended to the Jews.⁽³⁹⁷⁾ The new empire was conceived as a commonwealth of provinces enjoying a large degree of autonomy under the control of their viceroys or satraps.⁽³⁹⁸⁾ Tribute paying nations were more profitable than desolate countrysides.⁽³⁹⁹⁾ This attitude was the inspiration to second Isaiah's petition to the Jews that they should be gathered, and should serve as a light to the nations.⁽⁴⁰⁰⁾ It may have also been the first meaning of the suffering servant songs.⁽⁴⁰¹⁾ It was this attitude which did not allow either Sheshbazzar or Zerubbabel to be crowned, but did allow Jeshua to be appointed High Priest.⁽⁴⁰²⁾

The opportunity to return to Jerusalem, and the rebuilding of the Temple, make up the story in Ezra and Nehemiah. But the impression left by the exile extended to a more basic decision. After the new Temple had been dedicated,⁽⁴⁰³⁾ Ezra and Zerubbabel set upon packaging the law and the history of the Jews into a usable form. They decided not only to revise the Book of Deuteronomy but to add to it four other Books of Moses. Under their direction, priest and scholar labored diligently to fuse the most important of the divergent Mosaic documents, including the Deuteronomy of Josiah, into the five books of the Pentateuch, namely Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. All Five Books of Moses were now made divine. From here on no deletions changes or additions to the Pentateuch could be made, nor have any been made.⁽⁴⁰⁴⁾ As of that moment the Jews truly became "The People of the Book".⁽⁴⁰⁵⁾

Ezra and Nehemiah followed the tradition set by Josiah⁽⁴⁰⁶⁾ and, in 444 BCE,⁽⁴⁰⁷⁾ had a public reading of the Book of the Law.⁽⁴⁰⁸⁾ This was also a restoration of the suzerainty treaty, and made all five of these books holy. The reading was made in every synagogue in the empire with the help of heralds and interpreters.⁽⁴⁰⁹⁾ This interpretation of the law was the beginning of the Midrash.⁽⁴¹⁰⁾ The first root of the Talmud is found here in 444 BCE.

The reduction of the Books of Moses was not the limit of the work done by these Priestly scholars.⁽⁴¹¹⁾

12 chapters, containing many stories which are remarkably similar to those found in Babylonian tradition,⁽⁴¹²⁾ were added as a preface to Genesis.

"In The Wilderness" was inserted between Exodus 20 and Numbers 19.

The Samson story was added to Judges.

Chapters were added to Ezekiel.

Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah were written.

The purpose of this Priestly Tradition was to make Jerusalem the religious center of the Jews⁽⁴¹³⁾ to preserve the traditions of that priesthood.⁽⁴¹⁴⁾

At the same time the Pentateuch was being closed by the Jerusalem priests, prophets were asserting a different view of YHWH which did not fit laws and ceremonies.⁽⁴¹⁵⁾ The Book of Ruth was written for the specific reason of repudiating the Priestly demand that every man should divorce any foreign wife.⁽⁴¹⁶⁾ The most dominant of these 5th century BCE prophets was an unknown writer, who understood the theology of Isaiah, and wrote what became 15 chapters called Second Isaiah.⁽⁴¹⁷⁾ To the great ideas of justice and the love of God, these prophets added the thought of divine holiness which carried with it the demand for holiness on the part of his people.⁽⁴¹⁸⁾

Eight hundred years after the death of Moses, the Jewishness of the Jew had been established as a result of the reforms of Josiah, the doctrines of the prophets, and the innovations of Ezra and Nehemiah.⁽⁴¹⁹⁾

When the locus of empire passed from the Persians to the Greeks, the Jews in Palestine had accepted a High Priest as their chief administrator, but his power was held in check by the Sanhedrin.⁽⁴²⁰⁾ The members of the Sanhedrin were elected from among the leading families and scholars, and these 71 men served as both the legislature and the final appellate court.⁽⁴²¹⁾ The Jews throughout the rest of the Greek Empire governed their internal affairs by the synagogues, but they retained the right of final appeal to the Sanhedrin.

The impact of the Greek thinking was to stimulate the final Wisdom Books. Most of these were excluded when the Old Testament was closed at Jabneh, but tags were added to almost every one of the prophetic books. The Hellenic paradigms made the Jews defend their ideas in a way that led to Talmudism, and the Jewish paradigm of monotheism prepared the Hellenic world for Christianity.⁽⁴²²⁾

The stability provided by benevolent Persian and Greek imperialism allowed the Jews to complete the identification of their sacred writings. They were divided into three groups:

I. TORAH or LAW: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.

II. NEBIIM or THE PROPHETS: Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi.

III. KETHUBIM or SACRED WRITINGS: Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Song of Solomon, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiates, Ester, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chronicles.⁽⁴²³⁾

The Greeks, who could not fathom the Jewish paradigm, retained 70 scholars in Alexandria to translate the 39 books which the Jews believed contained all wisdom. The 70 translations were identical, and were proliferated throughout the empire. The Greeks referred to this work as the Septuagint, the work of the 70.⁽⁴²⁴⁾ By the 1st century CE, 10% of the population of the Roman Empire was Jewish. 60% of these people had been converted since the publication of the Septuagint.⁽⁴²⁵⁾ When Paul preached a gospel of justification by faith, he usually preached in synagogues because they were one of the few places that would allow these discussions.⁽⁴²⁶⁾ His monotheism did not require the Jewish dietary and circumcision laws, and replaced the Torah with the person of Jesus.⁽⁴²⁷⁾ The converts flocked to his easier religion.⁽⁴²⁸⁾

During the Greek period the Jewish community in Palestine divided into two fatal factions. The Sadducees focused on the Torah and the Temple, and believed that a certain amount of Hellenic thought and culture would be acceptable. They stood for pre-prophetic Judaism.⁽⁴²⁹⁾ The Pharisees believed that Hellenization was inherently dangerous, and emphasized the oral law which had begun to develop since the midrash.⁽⁴³⁰⁾ The Sadducees were political liberals and religious conservatives, whereas the Pharisees were political purists and religious liberals.⁽⁴³¹⁾ The Pharisees taught the oral law through rabbis who would contract with students for their studies. The school and the rabbi were identical.⁽⁴³²⁾

In 176 BCE Antiochus Epiphanes decided to force the idea of Hellenization in Jerusalem. He appointed a certain Jason as High Priest, and Jason commenced to install Hellenic idols in the Temple.⁽⁴³³⁾ Civil war broke out between the Hellenizers and the anti- Hellenizers among the Jews.⁽⁴³⁴⁾ The locus of power settled on the Maccabees, and in 164 BCE the Greeks had been defeated, the Temple had been cleansed and re-dedicated,⁽⁴³⁵⁾ and Palestine was free of foreign domination for 100 years.⁽⁴³⁶⁾

A mirror of these events occurred in May, 66 CE when a Roman Procurator, Albinus, demanded that the Jews pay him $350,000 out of the Temple fund.⁽⁴³⁷⁾ The difference was that this time the Jews got the full weight of Rome,⁽⁴³⁸⁾ and the outcome was the final destruction of the Temple and the dispersion of the people of Jerusalem.

When Jacob had been taken from Canaan to Egypt he had only a vague notion of covenant with El Shaddai, his shield. When Jeremiah fled to Egypt he had a collection of sometimes written traditions and laws which he helped apply to individual Jews. But in 68 CE,⁽⁴³⁹⁾ when a Pharisee named Jochanan ben Zakkai escaped Jerusalem concealed in a coffin, he took with him all of the Law and the Prophets. He gained permission to establish a rabbinic school in his vineyard at Jabneh.⁽⁴⁴⁰⁾ Zakkai was again confronted with the absence of either manifestations or institutions of his faith, but now was also confronted with Jewish heretics, like Paul and Mark, who had gathered certain followers and written certain works which proclaimed that a man named Jesus had already come as the manifestation of YHWH in the flesh. His school began the yeshivas in which the schools surpassed the individual rabbis. At Jabneh, the Law and the Prophets was closed into the Old Testament. All Jews agreed on the authority of these 39 books. What had come into consensus sometime between 250-175 BCE⁽⁴⁴¹⁾ was now written down. The Jews had achieved what the Chinese called the Great Learning, and what Lowi called legitimation. Their value system, beginning with the Abramic Covenant and the Mosaic Code were to be found in one document. The document did not include relevant mechanics because the Jews had no temporal bonds. The legitimizing document was entirely secular.

CHAPTER 4

CONSENT

After the Conference of Jabneh, the Jews confronted three serious internal challenges; Talmudism, Karaism, and Kabalism.⁽⁴⁴²⁾ The challenge of the Talmud to the Torah, was a continuation of the challenge of the Pharisees to the Sadducees.⁽⁴⁴³⁾ It was a battle which the Pharisees won in the 12th Century.⁽⁴⁴⁴⁾ Islamic Karaism was resolved when the Jews incorporated most of its tenets.⁽⁴⁴⁵⁾ Kabalism of the Middle Ages survived side by side with Talmudism until it became irrelevant.⁽⁴⁴⁶⁾ In each case, the correctness of the Jewish Great Learning was affirmed as governing Jewish thought and conduct.⁽⁴⁴⁷⁾

Talmudism:

At Jabneh 39 books were identified as sacred. Each of these writings was consistent with the Books of Moses. They were the timeless truths of the ancients. They had also been written in Palestine, and in Hebrew. The works of the Alexandrian, Hellenizing scholars were excluded, as were the works of the Christian heretics.

There was already a weakness in the closing of that canon. The midrash had started with the heralds of the law in 444 BCE. Men were called upon to explain and interpret the words of the canon.⁽⁴⁴⁸⁾ The heralds who carried this interpretation of the law became known as the Responsa.⁽⁴⁴⁹⁾ The learning - or "talmud" - which they carried among the yeshivas became the oral law. It was anchored in the written law of the Torah, but also contained all of the commentary which the scholars used to implement and explain that the 39 books.⁽⁴⁵⁰⁾ To defend the sanctity of the Written Law, the Sadducees decreed, in the 2d Century, that none of the oral law could be written down. It had to be memorized.⁽⁴⁵¹⁾

This 2d Century decree did not stop the growth of the oral law. Just as the prophetic force had amended the priestly institutions during the monarchy, the written law of Jabneh began to be subtly amended. First came the midrash of the heralds, then came the mishna of Greek reasoning,⁽⁴⁵²⁾ then came the gemara of the Babylonian yeshivas.⁽⁴⁵³⁾ Soon the oral law was some 2,500,000 words in length.⁽⁴⁵⁴⁾

In the 6th Century, Zoroastrian zealots set upon the elimination of Jews and Christians alike. The danger of losing the oral law, because of the execution of the responsa heralds, persuaded the rabbis to permit a school called Saboraim scholars to reduce the oral law to writing.⁽⁴⁵⁵⁾ This was done in the tradition of the JE writers who integrated the traditions into a usable form. This reduction of the jurisprudence, discourses, and sermons of the oral law took some 200 years.⁽⁴⁵⁶⁾ The end product was called the Talmud.⁽⁴⁵⁷⁾

The driving force behind Talmudism is Jewish self-government through the synagogues.⁽⁴⁵⁸⁾ It continued to grow, and to be transmitted through the Responsa, until the 11th Century. In that time Rabbi Shlomo Itzhaki, aka Rashi, translated the Talmud into vernacular French. To the work of the Saboraim scholars he added masses of footnotes, known as Tosaphot, so individual Jews could understand the new translation without the need for interpreters.⁽⁴⁵⁹⁾ Then, like Ezra and Zakkai, he also closed the book.⁽⁴⁶⁰⁾ As the Sadducees had feared in the 2d Century, the written Talmud, full of Greek logic and the resolutions of practical problems had become more important in Jewish life than the Torah which was the revealed law of YHWH.⁽⁴⁶¹⁾

The Talmud which Rashi - his children and his grandchildren⁽⁴⁶²⁾ - translated in France was then abridged and codified by Alfasi in Morocco.⁽⁴⁶³⁾ Alfasi's work was picked up by Moses ben Maimon, aka Maimonides in the 12th Century.⁽⁴⁶⁴⁾ The 14 volumes which Maimonides finished was called the Mishneh Torah, or Second Torah.⁽⁴⁶⁵⁾ Unfortunately, Maimonides was such a scholar that his Mishneh Torah was useful only among other rabbis. He improved on Rashi's work so much that he defeated Rashi's purpose. The Mishneh Torah did not make the Talmud available to the layman. The reconciliation of the new conflict fell to Joseph Caro in the 15th Century.⁽⁴⁶⁶⁾ His "everyman's Talmud" was the Shulchan Aruch, or "Prepared Table".⁽⁴⁶⁷⁾ It was Caro's Shulchan Aruch which guaranteed that clusters of Jews anywhere in the world could have self-government. Unfortunately, the "prepared Table" also froze these Jewish communities into a 16th Century model.⁽⁴⁶⁸⁾

"Talmudism accomplished three things: It changed the nature of Jehovah; it changed the nature of the Jew; and it changed the Jewish idea of government. The Prophets had transformed Jehovah into a God of justice and morality, into a God of mercy and righteousness; the Talmudist injected God into everyday activities of life, demanding that the actions of the Jews themselves be tinged with these attributes of God. The Torah had created the religious Jew; the Talmud expanded his interests into scientific and theoretical speculations. The Bible had created the nationalist Jew; the Talmud gave birth to the universally adaptable Jew, providing him with an invisible framework for the governance of man."⁽⁴⁶⁹⁾

The internal struggle between Torah and Talmud was therefore resolved among the Jews, over time, as a practical problem.⁽⁴⁷⁰⁾

Karaism:

Karaism was the Jewish equivalent of the Protestant Revolt in Germany during the 15th and 16th Centuries. It started in Islamic villages during the 8th Century. The Karah reformers complained that Talmudism was nothing but layers of trickery compiled by city rabbis to separate the layman from the Torah. They longed to return to the simplicity of the Books of Moses, and to the explicit meaning of God's revealed Word rather than its derived interpretation.⁽⁴⁷¹⁾ Three messiahs instantly arose among this population of dissenters, each of whom fell at the hands of Islamic power.⁽⁴⁷²⁾

The Karaites were caught on pincers of their own making. They could not live in their modern world using a literal interpretation of Mosaic Laws.⁽⁴⁷³⁾ Their solution was to reject the Talmudic interpretations in favor of their own interpretations. Unfortunately, they had no central doctrine, so anarchy fell on them by the 13th Century. Sects arose inside of their sects.⁽⁴⁷⁴⁾

A war of invective ensued both between the Talmudists and the Karaites, and also among the Karaite sects. This could only be resolved by a scholar who was large enough to encompass the principles and aspirations of the disputants within one understanding. That man was Saadyah Gaon.⁽⁴⁷⁵⁾ Gaon translated the Old Testament into Arabic - since the laymen no longer read Hebrew - then he incorporated the best precepts of Karaism into the Talmud. He capped this effort with brilliant, scholarly attacks on the heretical aspects of Karaism.⁽⁴⁷⁶⁾ Both the Talmudists and the Karaites made certain critical reforms, and the Karaites began to fade away.⁽⁴⁷⁷⁾

Neither Karaism nor Goan's cooptation⁽⁴⁷⁸⁾ were in vain. The Karaites breathed life back into a static Talmud, and Goan's embrace prevented a fatal fracture.⁽⁴⁷⁹⁾ Karaism taught the Jews two lessons: first, in complete liberty is anarchy; second, in total conformity is death.⁽⁴⁸⁰⁾

Kabalism:

During the Middle Ages the structure of the Talmud and its interpretation of the Torah became ever more frozen into a specific paradigm in which the revelations given to Moses and the prophets was explained and applied by complex Greek logic. This was the very problem that Rashi and Caro were addressing as the returning Crusaders began to whisper the ideas of the Renaissance across Europe. Not only was the Talmud cumbersome and complex, it operated entirely from left side, logical thought. There was no room for revelation or serendipity. There was no mysticism or spontaneity allowed in the paradigm.

Into this environment came books like the Zohar.⁽⁴⁸¹⁾ They were seemingly ancient works of Jewish mystics.⁽⁴⁸²⁾ The Jews who accepted these works were called "Kabalists".⁽⁴⁸³⁾

These works taught "that the creation had been sundered by an unforeseen breaking of the sacred vessels and by the sin of Adam. The sparks of the Presence had been scattered. Nothing in the world was in its proper place. To gather up the sparks and repair the damage was now the task of the Jew. The exile was like an abandoned garden choked with weeds. The people of Israel was to be the gardener. Dispersion was not only a punishment but also an opportunity. It set before Israel the mission of redeeming the world by separating the sparks from their encrustations of evil. Redemption would not come from the Messiah. The entire people of Israel, through its observance of the commandments and through prayer that took the soul on an ascent to the Infinite One--the people of Israel would restore the cosmos to its original order. This would inevitably bring the Messiah, whose coming would signify that the process of redemption had been completed. They studied and prayed.⁽⁴⁸⁴⁾

"God chose Israel for its intrinsic merit. The nations of the world functioned through force; in Israel the soul prevailed.⁽⁴⁸⁵⁾

Kabalists "disliked Aristotle and Maimonides: intellectual perfection is not the supreme goal of man. The study of the Torah enables man to commune with God. The observance of the commandments brings man closer to God."⁽⁴⁸⁶⁾

The initial response to this invitation of mysticism and revelation was for messiahs to appear in Eastern Europe in every century after the Zohar appeared in print.⁽⁴⁸⁷⁾ Most of these either faded away or were locked up. There were also positive contributions from Kabalism:

Bal Shem Tov created Hasidism in 1700.⁽⁴⁸⁸⁾ Although that sect essentially died out within 150 years,⁽⁴⁸⁹⁾ it became the basis for Martin Buber's theological existentialism which is influential in both Jewish and Christian thought today.⁽⁴⁹⁰⁾

Baruch Spinosa's philosophical system was a second positive result. Briefly, Spinosa's system "attempted to lay foundations for a new, free society, ruled by law, yet also in accord with divine nature. On the one hand, Spinosa presented religion as a product of the imagination, leading, in the main to piety. On the other hand, Spinosa held that reason and intuition led man to a union with the source of all things, which he calls the intellectual love of God. God, he says, is nature. God is whatever truly is. In knowing Him we love Him, and it is this knowledge of Him which makes man's mind immortal."⁽⁴⁹¹⁾

Summary:

The challenge imposed on Judaism by all three of these internal crises was the same as that imposed on the courts to be both legal and equitable. It is the contest between logic and imagination. During the monarchy the charismatic power of the prophets had confronted with the institutionalized power of the priests and the kings. Ezra, Zakkai, and Rashi had attempted to close the law, but none of them succeeded. When the body of law became unresponsive, Karaites, Kabalists, or other modern Prophets appeared to breathe life and feeling into it. The messiahs and the heresies of these emotive reformers could refresh the time-tested law of Torah and Talmud, but they could not defeat the truth which this law contained.

This same contest between logic and imagination became institutionalized in China when the ideas of a mystic, who wanted to reform Confucian rationalism, were captured into a new sect called Taoism. In America, a mystic who believed in a third testament became institutionalized into a new sect called Mormonism. The tests which Judaism has endured are therefore not unique. What is unique is that the Jews have developed a system of self-government and jurisprudence which has allowed them to maintain a relatively homogenous society in a diaspora which has essentially excluded them from permanent temporal possessions. Many Christians claim that they live by a Bible which they have never read. So also, millions of Americans wave around a Constitution which they have never read. The Talmud provides Jews with a system which they really have read and by which they really do live. The emanation of this Talmudic system can easily be seen in the policies of the Rothchild bankers and of Karl Schurz as Secretary of the Treasury. It can be seen in the legal precedents set by Benjamin Cardozo. It can also be seen in the detent policies of Henry Kissinger.

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY

The Hypothesis, Lowi's Theory:

The purpose of this paper is to test Theodore Lowi's theory of government against the example provided by the history of the Jews.

Lowi's theory is that government is a continuous conquest by which a government first asserts, then maintains its right to rule. The steps which Lowi delineates are first physical dominion and then psychological dominion through power and force. After dominion, power changes to an authority which includes an aspired value. The government is legitimized when the value and the mechanisms of government are reduced to a writing such as the American Constitution as amended. Continued authority relies on the consent of the governed which is updated on a day-to-day basis.

To Lowi's theories I added George Herbert Mead's theory of the generalized other. This is the socialized standards, or identity, which a population must achieve before it can even begin asserting power over a territory.

The theories of consent and of generalized other combine into a social compact by which the population lives. This compact includes a contract with the government, and with other social institutions, to perform certain functions within the society. When the social institutions becomes unresponsive to the compact, or when the needs of the population change, demands can be made, through interest groups, until the social institutions, or possibly the legitimizing documents are changed.

The Jewish Example:

In the instance of the history of the Jews, the generalized other came as a covenant between God and Abraham. This covenant was reaffirmed to Isaac and Jacob.

Jewish history then takes a what appears to be a deviating step from Lowi's theory. God gave Moses a suzerainty treaty which served as the initial founding document, and the basis of all subsequent Jewish policy. Legitimation could appear to have taken place before dominion. By the time the Rachel tribes began their conquest of Canaan, they had already moved through charismatic and traditional leadership to the legal-rational model of government. Decisions were already being made according to a knowable set of rules rather than because of the persuasion of a leader or the customs of the times.

The dominion process of the judges and the kings never succeeded. The Canaanites and Philistines were never cleared from the territory, the population at large was never persuaded of the sovereignty of YHWH over Baal and Asherah, and the monarchies never gained dominance over the quarreling tribes. Only the House of David retained power, and only over Judah.

What the Hebrii tribes and the Israelite monarchs had not been able to accomplish, the Assyrians and Chaldeans did for them. The foreigners evaporated along with the Hebrii tribes. The exilic Prophets in Egypt and Babylonia convinced the remnant of the sovereignty of YHWH.

The real legitimizing document may have been written when the remnant returned to Palestine. The priests surrounding King Josiah had published what they hoped would be the legitimizing document. They had explained and implemented Moses' suzerainty treaty through Book of Deuteronomy. Their effort was too little and too late for those times. Deuteronomy did serve as a basis upon which Ezra, Zerubbabel, and the Priestly scholars could build the Five Books of Moses. The Priestly scholars added four historical documents to Deuteronomy, and then inserted their own supplementing text. This Torah was heralded as sacred, and then closed.

The debate over whether the suzerainty treaty of Moses, the Deuteronomy of Josiah, or the Torah of Ezra is the legitimizing document can only be argued in terms of force and effect. The Covenant Code, under which Joshua and Solomon lived, was absolutely consistent with the suzerainty treaty. Deuteronomy was a stated attempt to explain and implement that treaty. Again, the Five Books of Moses which the Priestly scholars sanctified, was a stated attempt to explain and implement the suzerainty treaty. Since it was the stated intent of the authors to recognize the supremacy of the suzerainty treaty, it would first appear that the suzerainty treaty was the legitimizing document and that the subsequent documents were amendments. These amendments had been required because the change in the social compact was more than simple adjustments in custom and practice could accommodate.

The opposite argument, that the Five Books of Moses were the legitimizing document, is based on compliance. The judges and kings were not able to persuade the population of Israel to voluntarily abide by the suzerainty treaty. The minute Jeroboam was able to take the northern tribes out of the united kingdom, he established other gods and refused to comply with the commandments of YHWH. Both Hezekiah and Josiah were still trying to get the foreign gods out of just the city of Jerusalem. Neither the kings nor the population had actually accepted the legitimacy of the treaty. This contrasts to the Holiness Code contained in the Five Books of Moses. Here, the Sanhedrin and the population attempted to live in accordance with the values and mechanisms set forth in the document. Jews from all over the world regularly kept the circumcision rite, and made sacrifices at the temple in Jerusalem. When the Abomination of Desecration took place, there was a general uprising of the population rather than an act of a few officials.

Although there is merit to both arguments, this author continues to assert that the suzerainty treaty was the legitimizing document. Compliance is not the correct test. Lincoln's suspension of Habeas Corpus, and Roosevelt's involuntary incarceration of thousands of American citizens of Japanese ancestry were both clearly unconstitutional, yet the Constitution is still recognized as America's legitimizing document.

The social compact, and the structure of the society before the exile required that demands for change could only be place on the system through prophets. Nathan, Elijah, Amos, and Jeremiah all rose from the ranks of the populace. Even Ezekiel, who was originally a priest, began to prophesize only after he had lost his station. Only Elisha and Isaiah prophesized from inside the system.

Consent among the remnant after the exile is easier to see. The Sanhedrin was elected. The High Priest was accountable to the Sanhedrin in his administration. The Nebiim and Kethubim were supplemented to the Five Books of Moses based more on custom and practice than on any decision made by Zakkai at Jabneh.

The distinguishing characteristic of Jewish history is that as of 73 CE they had no state nor territorial possession over which to assert their authority. It is this distinction which makes it an interesting test of Lowi's theory. First the Old Testament, then the Talmud provided a basis by which the Jews would govern their own affairs. Rather than an abstract document, which someone else was empowered to implement, these documents became the Great Learning by which every Jew was socialized. Marxist doctrine was never able to penetrate the population, and that was one of the primary reasons for its failure. By contrast, the Torah and the Talmud became the basis for the conduct for each individual Jew's life. Dominion may be necessary for legitimation, but it is not necessary for consent.

It is essential to consent that the system be responsive to new demands. The examples provided by Talmudism, Karaism, and Kabalism illustrate this very point. When the existing body of law became too closed, too legalistic, or too logical, policy demands could come from anywhere to affect world Jewry. These demands did come, and the challenge was always the same as it had been in the Prophets. Amos could easily have been a Karist challenging unresponsive urban rabbis for inventing rules which they imposed on the villagers. Jeremiah would have been a Kabalist if he had lived in Eastern Europe during the 18th Century.

I have devoted this paper to the internal affairs of Judaism because in its absence a discussion of external affairs would be moot. The Jews would never have survived diaspora, ghettos, Holocausts, or Zionism if they could not sustain their social compact. Both Max Dimont and Chiam Potok, on whom I have heavily relied, view America and the post World War environment as more dangerous than the confrontational challenges of the past. They danger they see is that being Jewish may soon be as unimportant as being Methodist. The distinction would become a curiosity. Judaism would become irrelevant. The social compact would become unimportant. The Great Learning and the Talmud would become what Dimont calls "a minor force". If they lose their distinction they will become absorbed.

I disagree with Dimont and Potok's dark forecast. Judaism survived the benevolent dictatorships of Persia, Greece, and Islam just as well as it survived the disregard of the Middle Ages, and the heavy hand of Byzantium, Holy Russia, and post Renaissance Europe. The distinction of Judaism is not a curiosity whose time will pass. Presbyterians from Scotland and Lutherans from somewhere in northern Europe become neighbors in America or in the Common Market, and the basic reasons for their denominational distinctions fade away. The Presbyterians are no longer Scots, and few of those who have read John Knox any longer care about his Calvinist views on predestination. The unifying force behind Judaism and Mormonism is that the fundamental referent is different. The difference is not just a theological or nationalistic distinction. It is as different in its essence as the Koran is from the Analects of Confucius.

FOOTNOTES

1. Theodore J. Lowi, The Incomplete Conquest: Governing America.

2. Ibid. p. 7.

3. Ibid. p. 27.

4. Ibid. p. 54.

5. Ibid. p. 54.

6. Ibid. p. 130.

7. Ibid. p. 35. James Madison, "Federalist 10", The Federalist Papers, p. 77.

8. Ibid. p. 131. This was the basis of Senator Orrin Hatch's complaint during the sexual harassment portion of Justice Clarence Thomas' confirmation hearings.

9. Ibid. p. 33.

10. Ibid. p. 33.

11. Ibid. p. 130.

12. Ibid. p. 84.

13. Ibid. p. 84.

14. Ibid. p. 387 et seq.

15. Ibid. p. 422 et seq.

16. John Dewey, The Public and Its Problems

17. Dawson & Prewitt, Political Socialization, p. 34.

18. Ibid., p. 35.

19. Ibid., p. 34.

20. George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Society, p. 10. Abraham Maslow would have little trouble relating the "generalized other" to his Hierarchy of Needs. Frank B. McMahon, Psychology, the Hybrid Science, p. 123.

21. The Ottoman Empire is used only as an example. The Hapsburg Empire - ultimately called Austria-Hungary - would serve as another example. Tom Masland, "The Tanks of July"; Tom Post, "The Army and `the Dream of Greater Serbia'", Newsweek, July 15, 1991, p. 22-24.

22. John D. Hicks, The American Nation, p. xxi.

23. Max I. Dimont, Jews, God and History, p. 401.

24. Newsweek, April 29, 1991, p. 21.

25. James A. Michner, The Source, p. 717.

26. Wallace K. Ferguson, A Survey of European Civilization, p. 157.

27. Ferguson, op.cit., p. 179.

28. Alexander Hamilton, Federalist 10.

29. Walter Phelps Hall, A History of England and the Empire- Commonwealth, p. 65.

30. Ibid., p. 66.

31. Ibid., p. 102.

32. George F. Willison, Saints and Strangers, p. 37ff.

33. Roger Thomas, The Diffusion of Innovations Among the American States; the Case of Abortion Reform, p. 17; see also Daniel Elazar, American Federalism, A View from the States, Chapter 4.

34. John F. Kennedy, A Nation of Immigrants, generally.

35. Nathan Glazer, Beyond the Melting Pot, p. 288.

36. Ibid., p. 13. "Whose America?", Time, July 8, 1991, p. 12ff.

37. Thomas, op.cit., p. 17.

38. William C. Davis, Deep Waters of the Proud, vol 1, p. 186.

39. Hall, op.cit., p. 286.

40. Judson R. Landis, Sociology; Concepts and Characteristics, p. 272.

41. Landis, op.cit., p. 272.

42. "Methods of Research" lectures by Currin S. Shields, University of Arizona, 1972.

43. Landis, op. cit., p. 273.

44. Wallace K. Ferguson, A Survey of European Civilization, p. 179.

45. Hall, op.cit., p. 39.

46. Ibid., p. 88.

47. Ibid., p. 102.

48. Ferguson, op.cit., p. 390; T. Walter Wallbank, Civilization, Past and Present, p. 547.

49. Lowi, op.cit., p. 57.

50. Wallbank, op.cit., p. 127.

51. Hall, op.cit., p. 90.

52. George H. Sabine, A History of Political Theory, p. 33.

53. Ibid., p. 133-134.

54. Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History, Somerville Abridgement, vol 1, p. 12-13.

55. Toynbee would classify this as a stimulus of new ground, Ibid., p. 99, specifically he would refer to it as the result of an encounter between civilizations in space, Ibid., vol 2, p. 200-203.

56. Roger Thomas, Augustine Through an Eastern Window, generally.

57. Sabine, op. cit., p. 241.

58. Ibid., p. 221.

59. The Book of Deuteronomy was found under the steps of the Temple in 2 Kings 22:8ff. The Book of Leviticus was contained in a book known as In The Wilderness. This is the book, now found between the 25th chapter of Exodus and the 19th chapter of Numbers, which was found under the steps of the Temple in Ezra 7:6.

60. Ibid. p. 319.

61. 1 Samuel 8, 9, & 16 illustrate divine ordination of Saul and David as kings, and 2 Samuel 8 illustrates divine ordination of David's family as heirs to the throne of Judah.

62. Ezekiel 34 is an illustration of the covenant directly with the community.

63. Sabine, op.cit., p.375-384.

64. Ibid., p. 416-417.

65. Ibid., p. 417.

66. Ibid., p. 418.

67. Ibid., p. 418.

68. First published in Holland in 1625 when the 30 Years War was already aflame.

69. Sabine, op.cit., p. 423.

70. Ibid., p. 423.

71. Ibid., p. 423.

72. Ibid., p. 422.

73. Ibid., p. 424.

74. Ibid., p. 424.

75. Ibid., p. 440.

76. Ibid., p. 440.

77. Hobbes' Leviathan was first published in 1651 after the English Civil War.

78. Ibid., p. 468.

79. Sabine, op. cit., p. 441.

80. Ibid., p. 531.

81. Ibid., p. 531-532.

82. Ibid., p. 532.

83. David Hume's Treatise of Human Nature was published in 1740.

84. Sabine, op. cit., p. 602. Hume would have seemed verified by the results to the Caesars, the Bourbons, and the Romanovs.

85. Ibid., p. 603.

86. Edmund Burke's Appeal from the New to the Old Whigs was published in 1791.

87. Sabine, op. cit., p. 612.

88. Baruch Spinosa, Tractus Theologico-Politicus was published posthumously in 1677.

89. J.W. Gough, The Social Contract; A Critical Study of its Development, p. 113.

90. Ibid., p. 114.

91. Ibid., p. 114.

92. Ibid., p. 114.

93. Jean Jaques Rousseau published Discourse on the Origin of Inequality among Men in 1755. The Social Contract followed in 1762.

94. Ibid., p. 165.

95. Alex de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol 1, p. 274.

96. Vaclav Havel, Disturbing the Peace, p. 10.

97. Leslie Lipson, The Great Issues of Politics, p. 56ff.

98. Lowi, op.cit. p. 453.

99. Kenneth L. Woodward, "`Natural Law': An Elusive Tradition", Newsweek, September 23, 1991, p. 20, addresses how Judge Clarence Thomas was examined by the Senate regarding whether his Catholic training had persuaded him that there was a law higher than the Constitution which he should enforce during his term on the Supreme Court. It also shows that the authors of the Declaration of Independence believed that there was such a law. A larger study would have determined that the court at Nuremberg also believed in such a law and enforced it.

100. Romans 12:3.

101. The articulated values may be different from the actual values. Michael H. Hart shows the difference in his treatment of Jesus in The 100; A Ranking of the Most Influential Persons in History, p.50-51.

"...`resist no evil: but whosoever shall smite the on the right cheek, turn to him the other also.'

"Now, these ideas - which were not part of the Judaism of Jesus' day, nor of most other religions - are surely among the most remarkable and original ethical ideas ever presented. If they were widely followed, I would have no hesitation in placing Jesus first in this book.

"But the truth is that they are not widely followed. If fact, they are not even generally accepted. Most Christians consider the injunction to `Love your enemy' as - at most - an ideal which might be realized in some perfect world, but one which is not a reasonable guide to conduct in the actual world we live in. We do not normally practice it, do not expect others to practice it, and do not teach our children to practice it. Jesus' most distinctive teaching, therefore, remains an intriguing but basically untried suggestion."

102. Lowi, op. cit. p. 57.

103. Michael Novak, The Spirit of Democratic Capitalism, p. 97- 99.

104. Linda Verlee Williams, Teaching for the Two-Sided Mind, p. 2.

105. Lectures by Dr. John D. MacGregor, JETS Technology Institute.

106. Lowi, op.cit., p. 47; Sam Benson, "Why I Quit Practicing Law" Newsweek, November 4, 1991, p. 10, illustrates the larger problem with this I-thou relationship. The objective of human endeavor changes from "truth" to "score". Shock journalism and junk bonds are other examples of the same problem. Our change from a nation of immigrants choosing to come and melt into a new people, into a salad bowl in which each group is focused on its private heritage is another example. See, for example: Jerry Adler, "African Dreams"; Barbara Kantrowitz, "A Is for Ashanti, B Is for Black"; Molefi Kete Asante, "Putting Africa at the Center"; Henry Louis Gates, Jr., "Beware of the New Pharaohs"; Sharon Begley, "Out of Egypt, Greece", Newsweek September 23, 1991, p. 42-50. See also "Who Are We?", Time, July 8, 1991, p. 12-21. There is an inherent contradiction between individual and collective effort, between process and mission orientation. The win-at-all-costs, individual/process, narcissism is both the strength and the nemesis of protestant/capitalist/democracies. It denies the balance required for enlightened self-interest. For contrast see the John F. Kennedy position in Charles A. Larson, "The Value of Volunteering", Newsweek, July 22, 1991, p. 10.

107. K'ung Chung-ni taught in 551-479 B.C. The Analects which are attributed to him were published by his students after his death. See also Matthew, Mark, Luke-Acts and John.

108. Frank Magill and Ian McGreal, Masterpieces of World

Philosophy in Summary Form, p. 6. the symbol for jen is "two human beings";

109. Ibid., p. 7.

110. Ibid., p. 7. li is written as

111. Ibid., p. 7.

112. Ibid., p. 8.

113. Ibid., p. 8.

114. Ibid., p. 11.

115. Mo Ti taught in 470-391 BCE. His dominant work was the Mo Tzu.

116. Ibid., p. 34.

117. Ibid., p. 33.

118. Ibid., p. 33-35.

119. Meng Tzu taught in 372-289 BCE.

120. Ibid., p. 185. Chu Hsi taught in 1130-1200 CE., during the Sung Dynasty.

121. Ibid., p. 181.

122. Ibid., p. 181.

123. Ibid., p. 182. The Chinese symbol for i is

124. Ibid., p. 183.

125. Ibid., p. 182.

126. Ibid., p. 183.

127. Ibid., p. 183.

128. Ibid., p. 183.

129. Chuang Chou taught in 370-285 BCE. His primary book was the Chuang Tzu.

130. Ibid., p. 187.

131. Ibid., p. 188.

132. Ibid., p. 189.

133. Ibid., p. 189.

134. Han taught in 280-233 BCE, and his principle book was the Han Fei Tzu.

135. Ibid., p. 202.

136. Ibid., p. 203.

137. Ibid., p. 203-204.

138. Ibid., p. 205.

139. Ibid., p. 204.

140. The Tao Te Ching existed in its final form in the late 3d century BCE.

141. Ibid., p. 208.

142. Ibid., p. 209.

143. Tai Cheng edited the Li Chi, or Book of Rites during the 1st century BCE.

144. Ibid., p. 217.

145. Ibid., p. 216.

146. Ibid., p. 216.

147. Ibid., p. 216.

148. "The Other Japan", CNN, October 20, 1991.

149. Exodus 24, Jeremiah 11:4, etc.

150. Dimont, op.cit., p. 283-284.

151. S.E. Frost, The Basic Teachings of the Great Philosophers, p. 198. This same attitude can be seen in the Moslem Koran or in the Great Yasa of Genghis Kahn.

152. These people can be properly referred to as the Hebrii (Hapiru) as long as they were the wandering people who conquered the Promised land; Israelis at least through the monarchy and arguably until the destruction of the temple; Jews after the diaspora and specifically after the second destruction of the temple; and Israelis again after 1948. For textual consistency I refer to them as Jews.

153. Genesis 15:1-18 appears to be in the J or JE tradition. 17:1-8 is the P tradition of the same covenant.

154. Genesis 15:6. See also Psalms 24:5; 106:31; Galatians 3:6; and Romans 4:3, 9, & 12.

155. Deuteronomy 6:25; 24:13; etc. Even the rite of circumcision was not added to the covenant until J1.

156. cf Exodus 34:10-11; 24:7.

157. cf Exodus 19:18.

158. The Interpreter's Bible, vol. 1, p. 603.

159. Exodus 19:1-24:18.

160. The Interpreters Bible, vol 1, p. 841.

161. Exodus 15:22-18:27.

162. Exodus 19:4-7; 20:2.

163. Deuteronomy 4:13.

164. cf. II Samuel 5:3.

165. Exodus 20:1-17.

166. Exodus 20:22-23:33.

167. Martin Buber, Moses, p. 103.

168. Exodus 34:10-26.

169. Joshua 7:11 reads; "Israel has sinned; they have transgressed my covenant which I commanded them; they have taken some devoted things..." The passage concludes in verse 15; "And he who is taken with the devoted things shall be burned with fire, he and all that he has, because he has transgressed the covenant of the Lord, and because he has done a shameful thing in Israel."

170. 1 Samuel 14:24-46.

171. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 3, p. 11. According to the Deuteronomists a man who obeyed the law like Josiah should have been allowed to live long and prosper. The corporate responsibility attitude can also be seen in 2 Kings 17:7-18 and Judges 2:6-3:6.

172. Acts 5:1-11.

173. Genesis 3:23.

174. Genesis 11:1-9.

175. Genesis 6:14.

176. Exodus 25:1-40.

177. Exodus 13:21-22, 19:9, 33:9, & 40:34-38.

178. 1 Kings 8:10-11.

179. Exodus 25:8.

180. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, Expanded Edition, Revised Standard Version, p. 99, note to Exodus 25:10-22.

181. Numbers 10:33.

182. Numbers 10:35-36.

183. 1 Samuel chapter 3.

184. 1 Samuel 4:4; 2 Samuel 6:2; 2 Kings 19:15.

185. Exodus 33:7-11.

186. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 845, Chaim Potok, Wanderings, p. 203.

187. 1 Samuel 4:1b-7:11.

188. 2 Samuel 6:1-15, & 1 Kings 8:1-11.

189. 1 Kings 14:26 implies that an Egyptian general, who it calls Shishak, captured the Ark, but 2 Chronicles 35:3 states that the Ark was still in the Temple during the Josiah period. Isaac Asminov, Asminov's Guide to the Bible: the Old Testament, p. 335; Werner Keller, The Bible as History, p. 241; The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, p. 222-226.

190. Exodus 25:16, Deuteronomy 10:2. "Later editors also place (the pot of manna and Aaron's rod that blossomed) inside the ark." The Interpreter's Bible, vol. 1, p. 1022-1023.

191. Exodus 25:16 with the annotation provided in The New Oxford Annotated Bible, p. 9, and The Interpreter's Bible, vol. 1, p. 1022.

192. 2 Kings 25:8-17, 2 Chronicles 36:18-19, Jeremiah 52:13-23, J.R. Dummelow, A Commentary on the Holy Bible, p. 275.

193. 1 Kings 6:1-7:51.

194. The rebuilding of the Temple was actually done in two phases. Sheshbazzar started, but ran out of money. Ezra 5:14-16; Dummelow, op.cit., p. 273. When Zerubbabel and Jeshua came to Jerusalem, with the second return, they were able to complete the task with the help of the royal treasury. Ezra 7:20. See also The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p.576. Ezra 3:7-9, Nehemiah 2:8, and The Interpreter's Bible, vol 3, p. 592, discuss the practical use of the cedars of Lebanon.

195. 2 Chronicles 2:1-11 and 2 Chronicles 6:1-7:5; and 1 Kings 6:1-8:64.

196. Ezra 3:2-6.

197. Ezra 3:12; Haggai 2:3-9; Zechariah 4:9-10. The first Temple had been destroyed 66 years earlier. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 3, p. 592.

198. 1 Kings 9:3 and 2 Chronicles 7:1-3 as to the first Temple, and Haggai 2:4-9 and Zechariah 4:9-14 as to the second Temple and the symbols in it.

199. 2 Kings 22:8; 2 Chronicles 34:14-18.

200. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 488 and 214.

201. Ezra 3:2.

202. Matthew 5:17-20; Luke 24:27.

203. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. xxviii.

204. compare Joshua chapter 24.

205. perhaps about 950 BCE.

206. between about 900 and 750 BCE.

207. 2 Kings chapters 22-23.

208. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. xxviii.

209. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 185-200.

210. Edgar J. Goodspeed, How Came the Bible?, p. 25. Dimont, op.cit., p. 159, discusses how the Torah was canonized in 445 BCE.

211. Lowi, op.cit., p. 54.

212. Ibid., p. 84; and page 2 supra.

213. J1 was written before the kingdom divided, J2 in less glorious times. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 194.

214. The Interpreter's Bible refers to it as "rapprochement", p. 197.

215. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 5, p. 905-910.

216. Dimont, op.cit., chapter 4 generally.

217. Dimont, op.cit., p. 88.

218. Ibid., p. 159. Much ado is made about the E, J1&2, JE1-12, D1&2, P, L, M, and Q documents. These differ from the stem documents of the Talmud only in that we know the names and dates of authors for the Talmudic documents.

219. Ibid., p. 178.

220. Ibid., chapter 22 generally.

221. Isaiah 37:33-35, 2 Kings 20.

222. Ibid., p. 181.

223. The Greek, Roman, and Augustinian societies were each disposed of as insincere before the present Aquinian society. So also, the Sinic society was disposed in favor of the present Far Eastern society. The Taoist reformers in Far Eastern society were co-opted in the Great Learning, and the Augustinian remnant was co-opted in the four-fold test of scripture, tradition, revelation and reason. Toynbee, op.cit., vol 1, p. 21-23.

224. Dimont, op.cit., p. 27.

225. Ibid., p. 29.

226. Ibid., p. 30.

227. Ibid., p. 31.

228. Ibid., p. 30.

229. Ibid., p. 32.

230. Genesis 27:28; Potok, op.cit. p. 55.

231. Genesis 28:1-2.

232. Genesis 33:1; Potok op.cit., p. 55.

233. Genesis 31:22-25.

234. Genesis 32:6.

235. Genesis 32:24-31.

236. Genesis 31:48-49.

237. Genesis 31:55.

238. Genesis 32:3-5.

239. Genesis 33:3.

240. Genesis 33:8-15.

241. Genesis 33:17.

242. Genesis 32:28. As with Abraham (Genesis 17:5), the new name signified a new self. No longer was he "Jacob" the Supplanter (Genesis 25:26 & 27:36), but "Israel" which means God Rules (Genesis 35:10) or He Who Strives with God (Hosea 12:3-4). In antiquity it was believed that a person's self was concentrated in his name. It is important that God gave Jacob the name of Israel, but would not disclose his own name. (Genesis 32:29. The New Oxford Annotated Bible, with the Apocrypha, p. 41.) YHWH's name was not disclosed until he commissioned Moses at Mt Sinai. (Exodus 3:13-15)

243. Potok, op.cit., p. 55.

244. Genesis 37:1; Potok, op.cit., p. 56.

245. Genesis 29:23.

246. Genesis 29:31-35.

247. Genesis 30:4-8.

248. Genesis 30:10-13.

249. Genesis 30:18-21.

250. Genesis 22-24.

251. Genesis 35:16-19; Judges 21:1-24.

252. Genesis 34:1-31.

253. Genesis 34:30.

254. Genesis 34:31.

255. Potok, op.cit., p. 88.

256. Genesis 41:57-42:5.

257. Ibid., p. 56; Genesis 42:4.

258. Keller, op.cit., p. 86-88; Asimov, op.cit., p. 108-109.

259. Genesis 37; 39-41.

260. Asimov, op.cit., p. 109.

261. Genesis 37:2b.

262. Genesis 37:21-27; 42:24; 42:22.

263. About 1304 BCE, Asimov, op.cit., p. 123; or 1315 BCE, Potok, op.cit., p. 88.

264. Exodus 1:8-11; Potok, p. 89.

265. Magill, op.cit., p. 213, the Vulcans were also able to achieve it, through the teachings of Sirak, at the end of their Great Warring Period.

266. Schewill, A History of Europe, p. 14.

267. Ibid., p. 136-137.

268. Potok, op.cit., p. 91; Asimov, op.cit., p. 128; Keller, op.cit., p. 114.

269. Potok, op.cit., p. 91.

270. Exodus 2:15b.

271. Exodus 2:21.

272. Genesis 25:2.

273. Exodus 3:2-4:17.

274. Exodus 12:37; Numbers 11:21.

275. Exodus 12:33-36.

276. Exodus 19:2b. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 971.

277. Exodus 20:1-17.

278. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha, p. 1538.

279. Ibid., p. 1538; Numbers 13-14, & 20ff.

280. It is vitally important that Moses administered the law to three generations. The first generation actually left Egypt, the second turned back at Kadesh, and the third reached the Jordan. Through this 80 years of stability, Moses was personally able to move the law and the covenant from charismatic to traditional and finally into legal-rational form. Under Moses the covenantal law matured from a notion to part of the generalized other in the population. Joshua sustained what Moses had accomplished through the orderly transference of power. The Moses experience can be contrasted to the Roman experience in which the monarchy started by Julius Caesar was the subject of war and conspiracy until the 13 years of stability provided by Emperor Claudius. When Claudius was put on the throne Rome was near another civil war between the republicans and the imperialists, but by the time he died the idea of a Roman Republic was no longer a serious issue of discussion. This stability never was achieved in the Holy Roman Empire, so the opportunity which Charles V held in his hand in 1520 may only now come to fruition in the European Common Market. So also, the communist system started by Lenin was never inculcated into the population. An important part of the population who saw Gorbachev pass from power were never communists, and many remember Lenin's ascendancy. Communism was a class system which never permeated the population as a whole.

281. Dimont, op.cit., p. 41-42.

282. Deuteronomy 17:8-12.

283. Dimont, op.cit., p. 43. In the West, which lacked the tradition of daysmen and elders of the gate, (K.C. Pillai, Light Through an Eastern Window, p. 71-87; Milton Viorst, "The Shadow of Saladin", The New Yorker, January 8, 1990, p. 45.) certain issues were awarded to the jurisdiction of the Ecclesiastical Courts. (Arthur T. Vanderbilt, Studying Law, p. 266-269.) Among these were civil jurisdiction over the clergy; crimes which were mostly sins; marriage, divorce, and sexual crimes; fraud, forgery, libel, slander, and usury; bastardy and domestic relations; personal property in probate; and contracts based on oaths. (Ibid., p. 266-268.) Under the Tudors, and generally after the Reformation, the power of Ecclesiastical Courts passed to the Crown under its duty to provide certainty in the law and justice in the individual case. (Ibid., p. 322.) It was not until the end of the 19th Century and the beginning of the 20th Century that child custody, libel and slander were finally given up by the church. The courts of equity and courts of law were then combined into courts of common pleas. In this manner, the jurisdiction of the church finally become restricted only to the sacraments of baptism, confirmation, and communion. The church was, as of that moment, entirely an institution of prophecy, without temporal power. The internal structure of the church tends, even now, to be a chastened episcopacy. (Lectures by J. Holland Vernon on the collected works of William Warren Sweet.)

284. Dimont, op.cit., p. 45, quoting Sigmund Freud's Moses and Monotheism. This, incidentally, was the very subordination which was given up when the Renaissance adopted Aristotelian epistemology.

285. Dimont, op.cit., p. 45.

286. Dimont, op.cit., p. 41.

287. Potok, op.cit., p. 160.

288. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 192-193.

289. Exodus 17:8-16; Numbers 13:1-33; 14:39-45; 21:1-3; Deuteronomy 1:19-33 & 41-46.

290. Reader's Digest, April, 1983, p. 133.

291. Potok, op.cit., p. 79-80.

292. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 196; the New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha translates Deuteronomy 11:30 as "Arabah". The King James Version and the Good News Bible provide no word at all.

293. Potok, op.cit., p. 122.

294. The attitude of local determination held by the northern tribes is almost indistinguishable from that held by the Bavarians, the Scottish Clans, the American Southern States, and the Grand Columbia. The price paid for their allegiance was also similar. The distinction is that in Israel and the Grand Columbia states rights prevailed over centralized authority. It is important that Moses did not base his claim of authority on his Levite heritage any more than David relied on his Benjaminite heritage. Both men, however respected and worked within the clan system.

295. Genesis 34:25-30, 49:5-12; Exodus 32:26-29; Deuteronomy 10:8-9, 33:7-11; Joshua 15, 19:1-9, & 21; Judges 1:8-19.

296. Judges 9:1-57; 12:4-6; 16:2; 19:1-20:48.

297. "An amphictyony is a loose confederation of sovereign states held together by a common religious sanctuary. The making of war, the interpretation of common laws, and the selection of warlords are done at the sanctuary during religious festivals." Robert C. Linthicum, The People Who Met God, p. 58.

298. Judges 3:9-10.

299. Numbers 32:6-27; Joshua 22:1-6.

300. Judges 5:12-18.

301. Judges 6:35.

302. Judges 11:11, 12:4-6.

303. Judges 18:7-29.

304. Potok, op.cit., p. 102.

305. Potok, op.cit., p. 103.

306. Potok, op.cit., p. 111-112.

307. Potok, op.cit., p. 123.

308. Potok, op.cit., p. 123-125.

309. 1 Samuel 4:1-7:2.

310. 1 Samuel 8:5; The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 297.

311. Potok, op.cit., p. 141.

312. Linthicum, op.cit., p. 75-77. 2 Samuel 23:2-7; Psalms 78:70, 89:19-37, 110:1-7, & 132:10-18; Isaiah 55:3-4; and Jeremiah 33:21.

313. Hosea 3:5. Washakie, the greatest of the Shoshones, was a member of the Flathead tribe.

314. 1 Samuel 5:1-16.

315. 2 Samuel 7:1-29.

316. Josef Kasten, The History and Destiny of the Jews, p. 3-6.

317. Judges 2:6-3:6.

318. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 295; Luke 18:24-25.

319. Judges generally. This situation is similar to the American states under the Articles of Confederation, the Scottish clans under Mary Stuart "Queen of Scots", Poland, with its liberum veto, at the end of the Jagieon Dynasty, the Sioux Confederation, the Iroquois Confederacy, and Japan at the time of the Yamato chieftains. An interesting academic argument can be made about whether David or Samuel was the last of the Judges.

320. The Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 1539.

321. 2 Samuel 5:9.

322. 2 Samuel 6:1-15.

323. 2 Samuel 5:6. Washington, DC is neither in the North nor the South. Toledo was built jointly by Ferdinand and Isabella.

324. 2 Samuel 8, 10, 12:26-31, & 21:15-22.

325. 1 Kings 2:11.

326. 2 Samuel 14:1-18:18; 20:1-22.

327. 1 Kings 1:1-37.

328. 1 Kings 1. The Hapsburgs were famous for paying homage to the Hungarian Constitution at the time of their coronation and then promptly disregarding it for the duration of their reign.

329. 1 Kings 5:1-18.

330. 1 Kings 10:1-29.

331. 1 Kings 11:1-40; Ecclesiastes 1:1-2:18. The Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 432.

332. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 1540; The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 281.

333. 1 Kings 5:13-14, 9:15.

334. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 282.

335. This is very much like grouping the Shoshone and Northern Arapaho tribes onto the Wind River Indian Reservation under the management of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. The tribes have hated each other as long as history can be found. The Shoshone refer to the Arapaho as "dog eaters", and the Arapaho refer to the Shoshone as "snake people". Little is accomplished by the Joint Business Council, and the ever-continuing role of the BIA is to disburse the tribes' assets in their best interests. (Define "their".)

336. Benjamin was the tribe of David and the site of Jerusalem. When the Southern States began seceding from the Union, Lincoln literally occupied the State of Maryland and arrested much of its legislature. In this way he prevented Washington, DC from being surrounded by the Confederacy. (J.G. Randall, The Civil War and Reconstruction, p. 322-325.) Solomon's treatment of the Rachel tribe of Benjamin was of the same ilk and to the same result.

337. Asimov, op.cit., p. 236-237. Genesis 48:13-20. A larger discussion of this is found in The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 63, and The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 815.

338. Linthicum, op.cit., p. 78-79.

339. Linthicum, op.cit., p. 78-79. Emperor Justinian did much the same thing during the development of the Byzantine Empire. (Joseph R. Strayer, The Middle Ages, p. 69.) By the time Henry VIII, and other Renaissance kings, asserted such claims against the Imperial Papacy (Geoffrey Barraclough, The Medieval Papacy, p. 118-184) the divergence of Protestantism was too rapid for them to enforce their claim over the population.

340. Linthicum, op.cit., p. 65. Deuteronomy 17:14-20; 18:14-22.

341. 2 Samuel 12:1-23.

342. 1 Kings 12:21-24.

343. 1 Samuel 21:1-22:23. The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, vol 3, p. 556-557.

344. Numbers 35:1-34.

345. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 396, commenting on 2 Samuel 15:24-37 and 8:17. The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, vol 4, p. 928-929.

346. 1 Kings 12:6-15. A parallel to this acceptance of bad counsel is found in King George III's reliance on the advice of Lord North. The result was the American War of Independence.

347. 1 Kings 11:26.

348. 1 Kings 12:2.

349. 1 Kings 12:16-24.

350. 1 Kings 14:25. In the history of the English speaking peoples the success of the War of Independence turned more on Benjamin Franklin's diplomacy in France than by the relative victories of the generals in the field. So also, Union success against the superior Confederate generals was assured when Charles Francis Adams was able to present Queen Victoria with the Emancipation Proclamation and silence any hope of British interference. (Randall, op.cit., p. 459-476) Had the French not entered the Revolutionary War, or had the British entered the War Between the States, the outcome would most probably have been quite different. This same principle is reflected in Caesar's Gallic Wars, the British intervention in various Indian Wars, and the mid 20th Century activities of the Central Intelligence Agency.

351. A parallel can be found in the fairly abundant evidence that if the Confederacy had won the War Between the States, Texas and much of the southwest would have seceded from the Confederacy and gone yet its own way. Half of Virginia did secede when that state seceded from the Union, and West Virginia has become a permanent change in both the state and the Union.

352. 1 Kings 13:1-34 is just the first example. See also, G. Ernest Wright, Great People of the Bible and How They Lived, p. 197.

353. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 282.

354. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha, map 5.

355. Ahijah was an Ephraimite from Shilo, he appears to be the last Ephraimite prophet, and he turned against King Jeroboam. 1 Kings 14:1-31. Elijah was from Gilead (1 Kings 17:1) and his principle ministries took place on Mt Carmel in Asher (1 Kings 18:20-46), and at Naboth's vineyard in Jezreel which is in Issachar (1 Kings 21:1-29 et al). Elisha was from Abel-meholah (1 Kings 19:16) which is near the Jordan River in West Manasseh. He did relatively little ministry within Ephraim. (1 Kings 19:16-2 Kings 13:20).

Of the writing prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Hosea, Amos, Micah, and Zephaniah were all Judeans. The tribal ancestry of the others is unimportant because they wrote after the fall of the monarchies.

356. The Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Vikings, and Normans forced wedges or temporary dominion over the Gallic tribes in the British Isles, but the Welsh and the Scots have never lost their distinction. The Finns, Estonians, Huns, and Bulgars forced wedges, and exercised temporary dominion over the Slavs, but even though the land of the south Slavs is isolated, the population is still distinctly Slavic. The Lombards conquered Italy, but no one has ever conquered the population of Magna Gracia.

357. New England was able to lead the American colonies out of the British Empire in 1774. Yet the common generalized other served as the basis of a friendship between the United States and the Caucasian elements of the British Commonwealth such as Britain, Canada and Australia. This friendship has been essentially unbroken since 1818, and it became an essential element of both the Pax Britanica and the 20th Century alliances.

358. eg. 2 Kings 23:28.

359. 1 Kings 16:21-28.

360. Wright, op.cit., p. 220.

361. The Interpreter's Bible, p. 284. 2 Kings 14:25-27.

362. The first Deuteronomic editor wrote just after the death of King Josiah in 609 BCE, and rated the kings of Isreal and Judah against the example set by David. The second Deuteronomic editor wrote during the exile, and continued this same standard of appraisal to the fall of Judah. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 413; The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 197-198.

363. This idea begins with Elijah at Mount Horeb (1 Kings 19:1- 18) and continues from that time forward.

364. 2 Kings 17:1-6 and Jeremiah 27:3-7.

365. 1 Maccabees 8. Dimont, op.cit., p. 87.

366. 2 Kings 18:4.

367. 2 Kings 23:4-20.

368. The Poles spent centuries fighting the Teutonic Knights, but the Knights' eradication from East Prussia was only accomplished by the Russians after World War II. The question of what to do with Koenigsberg, aka Kaliningrad, now that the Soviet Union no longer exists and all of the Germans have been forcibly repatriated is undecided.

369. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 284.

370. Amos 5.

371. Dimont, op.cit., p. 68.

372. 2 Kings 25:12.

373. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 287.

374. Dimont, op.cit., p. 64 and 119. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 494 and 969.

375. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. p. 494.

376. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 197.

377. This is an attitude which is consistent with the attitude of the Pilgrims and Puritans in New England, and of the POME (Prisoners of Mother England) in Australia.

378. Joshua 7:10; 1 Samuel 14:24-30; Isaiah 37:5-20.

379. Hosea 1-3. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 1088.

380. The fat cows of Bashan were singled out in Amos 4.

381. Micah 1:5.

382. Nahum 2:2.

383. Obadiah 1:17.

384. Zephaniah 1:7-9.

385. Aaron and Elisha are other examples.

386. Isaiah 37:21-35.

387. 1 Kings 18:36.

388. W.W. Sloan, A Survey of the Old Testament, p. 232-233.

389. Ezra 2:1-70; Nehemiah 7:6-73. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 333. Dimont, op.cit., p. 67.

390. An argument can be made that the ascendance of the Bishop at Rome is a re-emanation of the Cd covenant of agency.

391. Ezekiel 34:1-10. At this point it appears that Ezekiel was paraphrasing Everett Dirksen's speech against Thomas Dewey's candidacy at the 1952 Republican Convention.

392. Ezekiel 34:11-16; Jeremiah 31:10; Isaiah 40:11.

393. Ezekiel 34:23-24.

394. Case, op.cit., chapter 9.

395. Dimont, op.cit., p. 71.

396. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 287. For the distinction between "a congregation gathered" and "a congregation scattered", see Robert Grilley generally.

397. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 287. Dimont, op.cit., p. 66-67.

398. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with Apocrypha, p. 1542.

399. Dimont, op.cit., p. 66-67.

400. Isaiah 49:5-6.

401. Isaiah 42:1-4; 49:1-6; 50:4-11; 52:13-53:12.

402. Dimont, op.cit., p. 68. Ezra 2:70. Zechariah 6:9-15.

403. Ezra 6:18.

404. Dimont, op.cit., p. 70.

405. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 287.

406. 2 Kings 23:10.

407. Dimont, op.cit., p. 70.

408. Nehemiah 8:7-8.

409. Nehemiah 8:7-8.

410. Dimont, op.cit., p. 70.

411. Ezra 7:6.

412. D. Winton Thomas, ed., Documents from Old Testament Times, p. 3-26.

413. The Interpreter's Bible, vol 1, p. 200.

414. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. xxviii. The Hebraic sect did this same thing by writing the Gospel of Matthew.

415. Dimont, op.cit., p. 64.

416. Compare The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha, p. 325; with Ezra 10-1-5 and Nehemiah 13:23-27.

417. Dimont, op.cit., p. 64.

418. Goodspeed, op.cit., p. 33.

419. Dimont, op.cit., p. 71.

420. Ibid., p. 80.

421. Ibid., p. 80.

422. Ibid., p. 78.

423. S.E. Frost, Jr., The Sacred Writings of the World's Great Religions, p. 153.

424. Dimont, op.cit., p. 114-116. Goodspeed, op.cit., p. 15.

425. Ibid., p. 113.

426. Ibid., p. 142.

427. Ibid,, p. 115 and 142.

428. Ibid., p. 115.

429. Ibid., p. 88.

430. Ibid., p. 88.

431. Ibid., p. 88-89.

432. Ibid., p. 90.

433. Ibid., p. 84.

434. Ibid., p. 84.

435. Ibid., p. 86.

436. Ibid., p. 91.

437. Ibid., p. 101.

438. Ibid., p. 101-110.

439. Ibid., p. 102.

440. William A. DeWitt, History's Hundred Greatest Events, p. 22.

441. Goodspeed, op.cit., p. 31. The Septuagint had been translated in about 250 BCE. Dimont, op.cit., p. 115.

442. Dimont, op.cit., p. 282-283. The Christian challenge had passed, before Jabneh, when the Jews had cut it off from their faith (Ibid., p. 282. Acts 21:27-28) and the Christians turned from the Jews in favor of the Gentiles (Dimont, op.cit., p. 142. Acts 13:51).

443. Dimont, op.cit., p. 165.

444. Ibid., p. 178.

445. Ibid., p. 282.

446. Ibid., p. 283.

447. Lowi, op.cit., p. 130.

448. Nehemiah 8:7-8; Acts 8:29-35.

449. Ibid., p. 162.

450. Ibid., p. 162.

451. Ibid., p. 165.

452. Ibid., p. 164-165.

453. Ibid., p. 167.

454. Ibid., p. 168.

455. Ibid., p. 168.

456. Ibid., p. 168.

457. Ibid., p. 168.

458. Ibid., p. 173. It is remarkably similar to the concept of common law in the English legal system.

459. Ibid., p. 177.

460. Ibid., p. 177-178.

461. Ibid., p. 162 and 178.

462. Ibid., p. 177.

463. Ibid., p. 178.

464. Ibid., p. 178-180.

465. Ibid., p. 179.

466. Ibid., p. 180.

467. Ibid., p. 180.

468. Ibid., p. 180-181.

469. Ibid., p. 162-163.

470. Lowi, op.cit., p. 84.

471. Dimont, op.cit., p. 200-201.

472. Ibid., p. 201-203. Acts 5:33-39.

473. Dimont, op.cit., p. 203.

474. Sounds almost like 20th Century Protestantism.

475. Ibid., p. 204.

476. Ibid., p. 204.

477. Gaon's victory was not duplicated at the Council of Tent. Neither Luther nor Calvin wanted to withdraw from the church, they both wanted the church to clean up its act.

478. Lowi, op.cit., p. 26.

479. Dimont, op.cit., p. 204.

480. Ibid., p. 205.

481. "Zohar" means light, illumination, or splendor.

482. Potok, op.cit., p. 429.

483. "Kabbala" means to receive, hence tradition or revelation.

484. Ibid., p. 437. The perception of the Kabbalists is partly shown by Potok's use of "The people of Israel was ..."

485. Ibid., p. 441.

486. Ibid., p. 442.

487. Dimont, op.cit., p. 272-282.

488. Ibid., p. 279.

489. Ibid., p. 282.

490. Ibid., p. 282.

491. Ibid., p. 331.

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