A very brief history

Any language is about communication, that is the purpose of language. It can be used to convey instruction, orders, emotion, feelings.
From our earliest beginnings human beings have used language to convey emotions and ideas as well as the basic necessities of survival.
At first all the ideas and stories were handed down by word of mouth, but slowly as people travelled and other civilisations were encountered it became necessary to write down instructions, orders so that they could not be misinterpreted. Stories and heroic deeds could also be transported without alteration.

English is the dominant language in the world today. It has supplanted all other languages as the language of international business, trade and travel. This has not always been so as dominant languages tend to favour the strongest economic or military power of the day. In the past Latin, French,Spanish, German have all commanded dominance in one part of the globe or another.

Tomorrow another language may rise to prominence, but English is the language for today.

Story Telling

Everyone likes a good story and good story telling never changes over time. The ingredients may change slightly but the basic recipe stays the same. Stories can be in books, written down, on the T.V. as scripts or soap operas, but they are still stories.
A good story has certain essential ingredients.
1.The ability to engage with the reader from the start. Soap Operas do this by relating their content to current events in peoples lives, and /or aiming for a certain market or viewer. There is also an element of fantasy. We know the event is unlikely to happen as depicted but it is just possible.
2.The characters are believable, we can relate to them, or they are culturally desirable or have socially acceptable status. You may say , in that case how does the anti-hero fit in? Even anti-heros display qualities we empathise with and which are promoted as desirable, e.g. independence, individuality, the stand against authority is usually one brought on by injustice.
3.Emotional engagement. It is relatively easy to convey emotion through pictures, to do it via writing is much more difficult. The writer endeavours to draw the reader into the part or scene described. Every reader will identify with one particular character and may have experienced a similar emotional situation, e.g. "she felt shunned, the laughter was at her and the tears welled up in her eyes. Trying to hold back the tears was worse as the fog of rejection clouded her vision". Adjectives and word association conveys emotion because we can relate to the experience. e.g. "the searing pain reminded him of the time the barn door slammed shut on his fingers".

Details and images of the rulers plus the main features of their reign will follow shortly.

   Ruler                                                      Notable events of their rule

William 1st 1066 - 87 > compiling the domesday book, building fortifications and implementing one law for all.

William 2nd 1087- 00 > Ist crusade 1096 - 99

Henry 1st 1100 - 35

Stephen 1135 - 54

Henry 2nd 1154 - 89

Richard 1st 1189 - 99 > Although Richard is associated with crusades, more 'crusading' was undertaken in the 13th century than under Richard. See Dates of the Crusades.   During his 10yrs on the throne Richard spent less than 6 months in England. Not quite the caring monarch he is cracked up to be!!

John 1199 - 1216

Henry3rd 1216 - 72

Edward1st 1272 - 1307

Edward 2nd 1307 - 27

Edward 3rd 1327 - 77

Richard 2nd 1377 - 99

Henry 4th 1399 - 1413

Henry 5th 1413 - 22

Henry 6th 1422 - 61

Edward 4th 1461 - 83

Edward 5th 1483 (reigned for two months. One of the princes in the tower, murdered by Richard 3rd)

Richard 3rd 1483 - 85

Henry 7th 1485 - 1509 > a builder of great palaces and patron of universities, a shaky claim to the English crown

Henry 8th 1509 - 47        famous for his 6 wives, who were they, click here   +The words toGreensleeves

Edward 6th 1547- 53

Lady Jane Grey 1553 (reigned for14 days)

Mary 1553 - 58

Elizabeth 1st 1558 - 1603

James 1st 1603 - 25

Charles Ist 1625 - 49 > more details on Charles 1st

Oliver Cromwell, 1649 - 1660 (Lord Protector after the English civil war, refused to take the crown).

Charles 2nd 1660 -  85

James 2nd 1685 - 1689 > forced to flee when Parliament opposed his catholic politics and invited William of Orange to take the crown

William 3rd and Mary 2nd 1689 - 1702 (William of Orange)

Anne 1702 - 14

George 1st 1714 - 27

George 2nd 1727- 60

George 3rd 1760 - 1820

George 4th 1820 - 30

William 4th 1830 - 37

Victoria 1837 - 1901

Edward 7th 1901 - 10

George 5th 1910 - 36

Edward 8th 1936 (reigned for 325 days before abdicating due to affair with Wallace Simpson, an American divorcee).

George 6th 1936 - 52

Elizabeth 2nd 1952 to present day

Catherine of Aragon married 1509 divorced 1533

Anne Boleyn married 1533 beheaded 1536

Jane Seymour married 1536 died 1537, gave birth to Henry's only son Edward.

Anne of Cleves married January 1540 divorced in July 1540

Catherine Howard married 1540 beheaded 1542

Catherine Parr married 1543 widowed on Henry's death in 28th January 1547

So you see only two were executed, despite Henry's reputation, that is Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard.

Henry, Duke of york, soon to be Henry 8th took advice, and from historical records it would appear that it was deemed politically expedient in view of the continuing friction with France that an alliance with Spain would help Englands cause.

Both the Spanish royal houses and the English obtained dispensation from the pope for the marriage to take place. The marriage could have been seen as incestuous under social mores of the time hence the popes permission was required. These doubts over the marriage never disappeared and would prove useful to Henry when he sought to divorce Catherine years later. Catherine bore one daughter, Mary, who came to the throne in 1553.

After failed pregnancies and Henry's roving eye Catherine was cast aside to make way for Anne Boleyn, who Henry met in 1525.

Catherine was expelled from the court in1529. Henry was courting Anne and petitioning the pope for a divorce from Catherine.

As is known, in the end the pope refused and Henry assumed the title of head of the English church.
Henry was married to Anne on 25th January 1533, Anne was already pregnant and made sure everyone knew it.

Anne was not popular with the people who preferred the restrained manners and dignity of Catherine. On the birth of her first child, a daughter, who later became Elizabeth the 1st, Henry was as usual disappointed. The longed for son and heir eluded him and in 1534 the law of succession was introduced which allowed a woman to rule England.

John Fischer, Bishop of Rochester and Sir Thomas More were executed for refusing to acknowledge the new law of succession. In the country at large people were uneasy about the speed and depth of the changes to their old religion.

Anne miscarried twice before Henry sought a new consort. With the help of Thomas Cromwell, the man responsible for bringing about Henry's marriage to Anne, Henry now sought to get rid of her. Adultery was high treason for a queen and Cromwell found various individuals who could be framed or bought to ensure Anne was suitably convicted.

Anne did not help herself, instead of,'going quietly' she decided to fight the accusations which did her no good. Under torture all her alleged lovers, including her brother, Lord Rochford confessed and were executed. On the day of Rochford's execution Annes marriage to Henry was declared invalid and Elizabeth declared a bastard.

In the shadows waited Jane Seymour, queen for a year before dying naturally.

The day after Anne was executed Jane was rowed up the Thames to court. Henry wanted her as a mistress and had written to her letters full of love and greetings. Henry considered himself a master of songs and poetry, after all it was he who wrote the words of the English song 'greensleves'.

Jane rejected Henry's purse of money he sent her and it is said returned his letter unopened. Janes words have passed into history, here she was attempting to engage her wits with one of Europes most powerful princes.
Through the messenger Jane responded, "I am a gentlewoman of good and honourable parents, without reproach, and I have no greater riches in the world than my honour which I would not injure for a thousand deaths. If the king wishes to make me a gift of money I wish it to be when God enables me to make an honourable match".

In the coded language of the court Jane is telling Henry she is a virgin and honourable, or is Henry sounding out the young Jane, can she be bought? After this exchange Henry only saw Jane in the presence of a chaperone.
On their wedding day, 19th May 1536, ten days after Annes execution Jane put a very different stamp on the court.

Decorum at court and the sober conduct of those present were the order of the day. Sir John Russell, a friend of Henry's is said to have remarked, "thank God we have come from hell into heaven".

It was during the revolt, known as 'the pilgrimage of grace' when Henry and Jane had gone north to have Jane crowned as 'Queen of the North' to placate the rebels that Jane became pregnant, while this was being celebrated Henry was executing the rebels who he had negotiated peace with earlier.

On 12th October 1537 Jane delivered a healthy boy. After 30 years of failed marriage Henry had an heir. The Seymour clan were elevated in the eyes of the country but on the 24th October during the christening celebrations Jane died of puerperal fever.

Jane, who actually longed for the return of traditional catholicism to heal the breach in English society never got her wish. Henry was as determined as ever to ensure the royal supremacy as head of the church of England.

At this time Henry himself was no great catch being 46 and not renowned for keeping wives long. After Jane Seymours death Henry was in no great hurry to marry himself and it was Thomas Cromwell who, anxious to further greater reformation in the church approached Henry with glowing stories about Anne's beauty and intelligence.

Even Hans Holbein, the painter had decided that the best he could do for Anne in conveying her likeness to Henry was to paint her as a ladt of quality without any detail to her features. Henry interpreted the picture as he desired, which was incorrect of course.

Cromwell lost his popularity with Henry over the match and as revenge Henry consigned Cromwell to the tower on 10th June 1540. The main reason for this was that Henry had not found a way out of the marriage.

Henry maintained the marriage was not consumated and as such was invalid. Poor Anne still believed that all was well and it appeared unaware that one of her ladies in waiting, the young Catherine Howard was taking up much of the kings time.

Anne was unaware of the prospect of divorce untill 6th July when she was served with the papers for a trial on the validity of the marriage. Despite initial reluctance Anne agreed to the divorce and was given the title of 'kings sister' plus palaces at Richmond and Bletchingly and a pension, much better than losing your head.

It must have felt strange for Anne to be Queen one day then see her lady in waiting take her place a few days later. As the 'kings sister' she was even invited to eat and pass the time with Henry and his new Queen.

It must have been with some idea of poetic justice that Anne saw Catherine Howard go to the executioners block on 13th February 1542. Anne died in 1557, she never remarried and lost almost all of her influence after Henry's death in 1547.

To an experienced eye at court and knowing the previous history of Henry you would think that a woman such as Catherine Howard would have been schooled by her relatives and friends in what to reveal about her past and how to conduct herself with such a man as Henry.

In her late teens and a lover of life and all the good things of court it was perhaps a combination of her ambition, youthful inexperience and her relatives ambition which put catherine on course for the executioners block.

It was the Duke of Norfolk, Catherines uncle who secured the place at court for her. Catherine liked men and they liked her. She had her share of admirers both before court and during it.

Henry in his very late forties spent lavishly on his teenage bride right up until the first rumours emerged of her 'liaisons' before and after her marriage. It was Thomas Cranmer Archbishop of Canterbury who passed an incriminating letter from John Lascelles an 'acquaintence' of Catherines sister Mary that started the proceedings against Catherine.

As usual Henry was under the impression that his wife was a virgin but according to the letter both Catherine and Mary had been free with their favours and Catherine had even promised to marry Francis Dereham.

It was left to Cranmer to question Catherine who under questioning failed to give consistent answers and admitted to various indiscretions.

Not being a virgin was not sufficient grounds for annullment of the marriage but a promise of marriage was, while infidelity was treasonable.

Under Cranmers questioning the name of Thomas Culpeper came up, Catherine was a distant cousin of Culpeper and the fact that Culpeper was a trusted favourite of the King and a gentleman of the kings bed chamber made the 'crime' of Culpepers admiration and love of the Queen even more heinious.

Needless to say under torture all the gentlemen accussed confessed to Catherines adultery. Most of the so called guilty were members of Catherines own family.

On 13th February 1542 Catherine became the second of Henry's wives to die by the axe.

Catherine did not set out to capture Henry, indeed on his reputation alone any woman fool hardy enough to entertain Henry needed to be made of stern stuff.

She had a suitor at court, Thomas Seymour, but Henry got rid of him by making him ambassador in Brussels.

Catherine was wealthy, had no children and found Henry's passionate courting not quite to her taste. She knew of the kings bad temper, his ill health and must have felt some disquiet at past history.

Despite all her forebodings Catherine married Henry on 12th July 1543 and for the moment court life seemed settled.

As he grew older Henry grew increasingly against further church reform and conservatives at court would scrutinize Catherines words and writings for signs of a liking for more reform or infringments of the King's 'teachings'. Despite this Henry appeared to have a genuine respect for his new wifes capabilities, so much so that on his last battle with the armies of France he left Catherine as regent, placing all of the royal children in her care.

Catherine was a good scholar and chose to write frequently and often to her step children and friends. She had a book published in 1545 called, prayers and meditations, which was such a success that the University of Cambridge asked for her patronage, which she gave.

It was her writings that would lead to near disaster for Catherine as in her next book, Lamentations of a sinner, she would come as close as is possible to endorsing Martin Luther for which the penalty was death.

Although the book was not published, her radical beliefs were being watched by the conservative factions who were keen to exploit what they saw as any rift between the Queen and Henry.

Stephen Gardiner, the Bishop of Winchester saw an opportunity to attack Catherine and got Henrys permission to conduct an investigation into Catherines affairs. Henry was ill at this time, bad tempered and quarrelsome.

Under torture, one, Anne Askew confessed to Lutherian views and implicated some of the court. Her legs were dislocated and broken in order to exact this truth!

The warrant for Catherines arrest was duly written and signed by Henry, but mysteriously seen by Catherine. It was at this point that Catherine, skilled and astute as she was made the famous comment to Henry,

"I am but a woman, with all the imperfections natural to the weakness of my sex, so in all matters of doubt or difficulty I must refer myself to Your majestys better judgement, as to my lord and head".

Never was a statement so perfectly timed, in saying that womens opinions were of no consequence and that she had only wished to learn from Henry she sealed the fate of those conspiring against her and enhanced her standing.

In December 1546 Henry was taken seriously ill. He had ulcers and boils on his legs and probable blood poisoning. On 28th January 1547 He was dead. As for Catherine she eventually married Thomas Seymour in May 1547 and became pregnant. The child was born in August 1548 but was sickly and died in infancy. Sadly Catherine died of puerparal fever soon after the birth on 5th September 1548. Living in her household at this time was perhaps Englands greatest future Queen and Henry's daughter by Anne Boleyn, Elisabeth. But thats another story.

His father, James 1st, were unable to unite England and Scotland but were determined to impose some degree of uniformity on both kingdoms. Both men were implacably opposed to Parliaments but in 1638 after attempting to impose some church amendments on the Scots they invaded England.

Charles was obliged to recall Parliament, after 11yrs of doing without one. In return for money and support the Parliament insisted on redress of some of its grievances. Many of Charles's corrupt coutiers were dismissed, (and some good ones), while one of his favourites, the Earl of Stafford his principalcounsellor was executed by Parliament.

In 1642 an Irish rebellion forced Charles to ask Parliament for more money to put down the rebellion. Parliament refused and in the ensuing crisis war broke out. Charles raised his flag at Standard Hill in Nottingham near the castle as it stands today.

Dates of the Crusades

1st crusade  1096 -1099 to Jerusalem

2nd crusade 1147-1149 to Jerusalem

3rd crusade  1189 -1192 to Jerusalem

4th crusade  1202 -1204  to Constantinople, modern day Istanbull

5th crusade  1218 -1221  to Egypt

6th crusade  1228 -1229 Jerusalem

7th crusade  1248 -1251  to Egypt

8th crusade  1270  to Tunis