Duty

(Drawn from Lawrence Hinman, Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory (2^nd ed.), pp. 208-238, and Mr. Hinman’s website at http://ethics.acusd.edu)

1. Immanuel Kant (1742-1804) is the foremost philosopher of Duty-based Ethics.
2. “Duty” is defined as:

· doing what any rational agent would do (such as throwing a life preserver or a rope to a drowning child)

· fulfilling one’s professional role (as a doctor has a duty to care for the sick, even if the patient cannot pay right away)

· fulfilling a social role (such as a parent’s obligation to care for their children).

3. Two visions of Kant’s vision have emerged.
4. The Adolf Eichmann model, where duty is “just following orders” without regard for consequences.

· Eichmann was a famous Nazi responsible for carrying out many of Hitler’s extermination orders. At his trial, Eichmann said in his defense that he was not personally responsible, as he was following orders given to him by his supervisors.

· Here “duty” is seen as external and imposed by others.

· Note that the Eichmann error is so easy to make that the U.S. Armed Forces has addressed this issue explicitly!! Service personnel have a duty to disobey “illegal orders” regardless of personal cost.

5. Kant’s real intention was to see duty as internal, something that we impose upon ourselves.
6. Returning to the doctor example: people who choose to become physicians do so knowing full well that they will incur the duty to care for people, some of whom cannot pay.
7. Kant’s major achievement was clearly stating the notion of CATAGORICAL IMERITIVES. These are unconditional commands that are binding to all people at all times.
8. The underlying conviction is that what is fair for one is fair for one must be fair for all: one should “always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.”
9. “Maxims,” by the way, are rules or proverbs used to guide actions. They are stated as imperatives such as “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you” or “Never do something in private that you would not also do in public.”
10. Another of Kant’s categorical imperatives was focused on respect: “Always treat humanity, whether in yourself or in other people, as an end in itself and never as a mere means.”

· Let’s take the example of “Harold,” an annoying nerdy guy just starting out at college (p. 224). His lack of social skills result in his having only a few friends. During his second year, however, his father gives him a nice sports car. Also, his sister—who happens to be beautiful—enrolls at a nearby school. Suddenly Harold becomes much more popular, and is often invited to parties—as long as he brings his sister, too!

· In all likelihood, many of Harold’s new “friends” are using him as a means to achieve their own ends—using him to drive them around and/or to meet his sister.

11. Kant did allow exceptions to rules, as long as the exceptions could be universalized. One example: the speeding car. A friend goes into labor. Are you justified in speeding to get them to a hospital? Kant would say “yes,” so long as you do not pose a threat to others with your speeding. This exception can be universalized, and makes sense to most rational people.
12. Kant wanted to get away from using emotions as motivators to ethical action. He saw them as unreliable, passive, and too subject to whim and passing fashion.
13. It requires persons to fulfill their duty, regardless of personal consequences to themselves. Hinman uses the example of the politician Edmund Ross, who was called to choose between personal feeling and advancement or doing the right thing. Ross chose the right thing, although it ended his political career (p. 208-210).
14. Kant tended to think that actions were morally admirable only if they were done without regard to feeling or emotion. For example, if I give money to homeless person because I feel bad for them, this lacks moral merit: I get something out of my donation because I feel good helping somebody else. It would have more merit if I really had not desire to help, but did so anyway because it was simply the right thing to do.
15. This has led some to claim that Kant wanted people to do only the minimum to fulfill their duties, rather than doing things for heart-felt reasons.
16. It also can make people feel mistrustful of their feelings, as Kant felt that they were an unreliable guide.
17. Finally, there is the Eichmann problem. This is the notion that a person should just follow orders of superiors, regardless of outcome.
18. We have already shown why the Eichmann view of duty is incorrect. However, it is probably true that Kant was overly mistrustful of human emotions—sometimes (but not always) feelings and inclinations do point us in the correct direction, and we may enjoy doing our duties.
19. The power of Kant’s vision was his recognition that morality must be fair and evenhanded.
20. It also provides a sort of moral safety that can help us to avoid sliding down the slippery slope to pure utilitarianism without regard for individuals.
21. Finally, it is probably under-recognized that Kant’s ethics are good for the individual as well—individuals should not mistreat themselves (through working themselves to death, or even undertaking weird fad diets) any more than they would impose these things upon others.