Egoism

(Drawn from Lawrence Hinman, Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory (2nd ed.), pp.120-156 , and Mr. Hinman’s website at http://ethics.acusd.edu)

  1. There are two forms of egoism. Psychological egoism states that, at least for the vast majority of the time, people act in their own self-interest. Note that this statement is descriptive, meaning that is describes the way things are rather than the way they should be.
  2. The other type of egoism is ethical egoism, which states that people should act in their own self interest. (This is a prescriptive statement, meaning that it is concerned with the way people should act, not how they really do act.)
  3. We will examine the claims of psychological egoism first.

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    Psychological Egoism

  4. Psychological egoism claims that people always act selfishly, and/or in their own self interest. One of the early philosophers stated this was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who also said that "Life is nasty, brutish, and short."
  5. Whether we agree with this philosophical school or not, belief in psychological egoism is wide-spread:
  1. It is easy to say that people either act selfishly, or at least in their own self-interest. However, we also need to ask:
  1. Also: what is the difference between self-interest and selfishness?
  1. Thus, a chain smoker who insists on smoking everywhere might be said to be selfish (in motivation and lack of consideration for others), while at the same time not acting in his or her long-term self-interest.
  2. One problem with hard-core egoism is that is has trouble accepting supposedly altruistic acts at face value. Example: Mother Theresa.
  1. Philosopher Karl Popper examines this with the "unfalsifiable hypothesis." This is where we can explain everything in terms of our particular pet theory, dismissing the intentions of the people acting. Examples:
  1. The point here is that we have to be careful not to confuse motives with consequences. This means that just because we get some benefit from a particular action, it does not necessarily mean that we did the action to get that benefit.
  2. Example: children. Most people care for their children because they are our children, not simply because they will someday pay for our old age expenses.
  3. The problem with psychological egoism is that is tends to place everything on a spectrum between egoism and altruism. The more I act to further my own goals, the less altruism that is possible.
  4. Egoism ß --------------------------------à Altruism

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    Instead, we should realize that there are really two axes: a "high to low ego" axis based on how much an action will benefit oneself, and another axis of "high to low altruism" based on how much an action well help or harm others.

  5. This can help clarify a number of issues. For example, a businessperson may start a business in an under-developed region with two simultaneous motives: to make money (egoistic), but also to help the region (altruistic). A doctor may wish to make money (egoistic), but also truly desire to help others (altruistic).
  6. Another example is found in sports. In basketball, for example, players act together for a common goal of winning the game. However, a highly skilled and valuable player can treat their fellow teammates in a selfish (egoist) or non-selfish (non-egoist) fashion.
  7. Note, too, that intentions and consequences can also be very different from each other!

    8. Ethical Egoism

  8. We now turn to ethical egoism, which states that people should behave is a selfish, self-interested manner.
  9. In ethical egoism, selfishness is seen as a virtue.
  10. One of the most famous people to advocate this was Russian immigrant Ayn Rand, philosopher and novelist. One of her more famous books was The Virtue of Selfishness.
  11. Three arguments used to support ethical egoism are:
  12. Altruism is demeaning. German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche claimed that putting the wishes and needs of others ahead of oneself is equivalent to saying that the other person is more important. This is degrading to the self.
  13. Acting selfishly creates a better world, because: a) each person is probably best situated to know what is best for him-or herself, and b) help other people makes them dependant upon you, to the detriment of all.
  14. Acting selfishly is actually better because it is more straightforward and honest, since most people are in fact looking out for their own interests.
  15. There are several problems with ethical egoism.
  16. First, it tends to assume that everybody is an able-bodied, independent adult. There isn’t much room for people who are physically or mentally handicapped, or for children or others who really can’t fend for themselves.
  17. It also presupposes a world of strangers indifferent to the fate of each other.
  18. It does not account well for how love and friendship work beyond temporary utilitarian alliances. There is little role for relationships for their own sake.
  19. It comes across as morally insensitive, because there is little role for caring about the needs and desires of others, or for recognizing a that the needs of others can exert a moral "pull" upon us.
  20. However, egoism does offer the following insights about humans:
  21. Self-interest can sometimes disguise itself as altruism.
  22. An ethical system should not deny the reality of, and importance of, self-interest. What is needed as a way to take into account and balance the needs of both self and others.