(This lecture draws heavily from Lawrence Hinman, Ethics: A Pluralistic Approach to Moral Theory, 2^nd ed., pp. 76-96, and from Mr. Hinman’s website at http://ethics.acusd.edu)

In the West (Europe and America) there is sometimes an inclination to see religion as a set of tenets with one agrees with intellectually or not. However, in more traditional (and also some more zealous traditions, both Christian and otherwise), a person might be more likely to define religion as "the way I live my life." Religion here goes beyond intellectual content, and even beyond personal spirituality, to include all aspects of life: personal, social, and even political.

Whether it is publicly acknowledged or not, religion has influenced (and continues to influence) much of American law, policy, and social ethics.

While much of this influence is of Christian origin, this tradition has much in common with both Jewish and Islamic faith and ethics. Especially in the case of Judaism, this is not surprising. Jesus (especially during the early part of his ministry) acting as a reforming rabbi, working within the Jewish tradition. In fact, some have compared his work and message to that of Rabbi Hillel, another reforming rabbi who had lived 100 years earlier. Note, too, that Mohammed (the first prophet of Islam) was probably influenced by Christianity and especially by Judaism.

While there is some variation within the Christian tradition, most would describe the Christian worldview as follows:

In the beginning was God, who created the universe, including the earth. Since the earth was created by God, it was fundamentally good (though there may be evil aspects now, at least in part due to poor choices made by humans).

From time to time, God has intervened in history: through sending visions, through prophets to speak for Him, and especially through the Incarnation.

In this view, God is both the creator of the universe, and also its final destiny: God is the goal (or destiny) toward which all humans, and perhaps all of nature, strives. While some believe that God started the universe and lets it pretty much run itself, others hold quite strongly to the belief that God constantly interacts with the world at a variety of levels--if it were not for His constant attention, the universe would blink out of existence.

This "cosmic" or "big picture" viewpoint is actually probably the easiest to deal with, because in many ways it doesn't really demand much of a response on the part of humans; it is mainly an abstract description.

At the more mundane, "little picture" level, things become both more interesting, yet also more ethically demanding. We can find some of the core ethical teachings of Christianity in Jesus' "Sermon on the Mount," found in Matthew 5, 6, and 7 in the New Testament.

One thing we notice is a call to public action:

However, at the same time there is also a very strong injunction against hypocrisy.

Instead, one should practice self-examination, especially before passing judgement on others. People should judge others according the standards by which they would wish to be judged. Also, there is again a condemnation of hypocrisy, both in attitude and action.

Note, too, the call for single-minded devotion to God: "No one can serve two masters; for a slave will either hate the one and love the other, or be devoted to the one and despise the other. You cannot serve God and wealth (Mt. 6:24).

One is called to a level of moral purity and perfection this far beyond the dictates of utilitarianism or even normal reason:

Jesus also taught that intent and attitude are just as important as a physical act itself:

Similarly, "You have heard that it was said, 'You shall not commit adultery.' But I say to you that everyone who looks at a woman with lust has already committed adultery with her in his heart" Mt. 5:27-28 NRSV).

Underneath all of this is an ethic of love. One must love their enemies, even those who wish them harm. Furthermore, "In everything do to others as you would have them do to you; for this is the Law and the prophets" (Mt. 7:12 NRSV). Note that "love" as practiced here has a strong active component, as contrasted with the detached compassion of Buddhism, which we will look at later.

The religious world view–whether Christian, Muslim, or Jewish, offers a unified view of the world. Things have a pattern, an order, and a purpose. People, and perhaps all beings, have a goal or purpose that is ordained by God. Indeed, the world itself has value, as it has been created by God; God doesn’t make things that are worthless.

We may contrast this with the Atheistic world view. Bertrand Russell, a famous mathematician and philosopher, is one of the most famous (and consistant) advocates of this system of belief.

For Bertrand Russell, there is absolutely no unity, value, or purpose to the universe in the Christian (or Muslim, or Jewish) sense of these terms.

In Russell’s essay, "A Free Man’s Worship," he states:

That Man is the product of causes which had no prevision in the end they were achieving;

That his origin, his growth, his hopes and fears, his loves and his beliefs, are but the outcome of accidental collocations of atoms;

That no fire, no heroism, no intensity of thought and feeling, can preserve an individual life beyond the grave;

That all the labors of the ages, all the devotion, all the inspiration, all the noonday brightness of human genius, are all destined to extinction in the vast death of the solar system;

And that the whole temple of Man’s achievement must inevitably be buried beneath the debris of a universe in ruins;

–all of these things, if not quite beyond dispute, are yet so nearly certain, that no philosophy which rejects them can hope to stand. Only within the scaffolding of these truths, only on the firm foundation of unyielding despair, can the soul’s habitation henceforth be safely built."

Thus in Russell’s view:

• There is no place for ultimate purposes, either in the life of the individual, or in the existence of the world.
• There is no inherent goodness in the world.
• There is no privileged place for humanity.

Frederick Nietzsche, writing several decades earlier, had a somewhat similar view. Perhaps more than Russell, Nietzsche examined the implications that this viewpoint would have upon ethics.

• There is no ultimate purpose for humanity.
• There is no ultimate reward or punishment.
• There is no question of nature being good or bad; it is merely indifferent.
• What is natural or unnatural is purely in the eye of the beholder. His famous quote: "If there is no God, then all is permitted."

Of course, there are other religious systems besides Christianity and hard atheism. We will now examine the religion of the Navaho, the Muslims, and the Buddhists, along with their ethical systems. Note that these descriptions are only broad sketches; a full understanding requires much more study!

The Navaho religion is heavily oriented toward maintaining harmony in small society. In fact, there are two sets of ethics: one for use with family and other tribal members, and one for outsiders. The focus is also primarily practical, not theoretical.

The Navaho tend to reject the Western mind/body split. In the West, a person with a problem often has to decide if the problem is physical, mental, or spiritual; they then have to go find the right specialist (psychologist, psychiatrist, medical specialist or surgeon, priest, minister, or councilor) to help them. The goal here is often to focus on and then stomp out a problem or disease.

In contrast, the Navaho are more likely to focus on the entire person. A "medicine man" or woman is the ultimate general practitioner: they heal mind, body, and spirit simultaneously, and seek to reestablish harmony between the individual and the rest of the natural and supernatural world.

Even when dealing with the natural world, the goal is harmony, rather than domination. If one’s house floods, one should move to higher ground, not try to build a dam. Snakes should be avoided, rather than eradicated.

The Navaho also tend to avoid trying to rid the world of evil. Instead evil is seen as a part of life: it should be avoided, rather than eliminated. The purpose of morality is to help guide the individual back into a state of harmony with all that surrounds him or her–including the natural, the social, and the supernatural. The guiding principle is "hozho"–a word with multiple means which include harmony, beauty, peace of mind, goodness, well-being, and success.

Another important concept is the Holy Wind, which acts as a cross between the conscience and the Christian Holy Spirit: it warns people of disruptions of the hozho and/or of danger. It also does not punish.

In terms of practical ethics, the Navaho basic premise is: Life is very, very dangerous.

The maxims expressing this would include:

Maintain harmony, especially in those parts of life over which humans cannot control very well.

• Be wary of non-relatives and outsiders.
• Avoid excesses.
• When in a new situation, do nothing.
• When in danger, escape. (Notice how the last two are different from the American maxims, which would be more likely to be "explore," "take charge," or "attack"!)

Among the Navaho, religious rituals are intended in reestablish or reinforce harmony–between the natural, the human, and the supernatural worlds.

Note that Islam, like Christianity, Buddhism, and other large world religions, contains a great deal of variety. Many of the unfortunate events of the recent past come from small, but vocal, sub-groups.

However, we may still make some generalizations:

For example, Islam rejects the traditional Western distinction between "Church" and "State"–all the state holidays are explicitly religious. There is also not much separation between "religion" and "ethics." Islam is concerned with all human behavior.

The core notion of Islam is surrender to the will of God. The ethical system is mainly based on divine command, specifically the will of God.

• "What should I do?" = "What is God’s will in this situation?"
• What is right = what God wills

God’s will is embodied in the Shari’ah, divine Islamic law. This law tells us what is required, what is recommended, what is permitted, what is discouraged, and what is forbidden. Compared to was many of us are used to in the West, it is extremely specific. For example, interest rates on loans are specified.

In terms of explicitly religious duties, a Muslim should follow the Five Pillars of Islam:

1. Profession of faith: "There is no God but God (Allah), and Mohammed is the Messenger of God."
2. Ritual prayer five times a day while facing Mecca.
3. Giving of alms to the poor, and for the spread of the faith. This is about 2.5% of one’s net worth per year.
4. Ritual fasting (including smoking and sexual intercourse), particularly during the daylight hours during the month of Ramadan.
5. A pilgrimage during one’s lifetime to Mecca.

Again, note that there is no real notion of separation of "church" and "state" in Islam. The Ulama (=clergy) normally interpret the will of God, and the civil rulers are then charged with implementing it. Broadly speaking, the role of the church/state complex is "to command the Good and forbid the Evil."

One term that we see mentioned frequently in association with Islam is jihad. This is frequently translated as "holy war," but another, more basic meaning is "striving." Islam recognizes two forms of jihad. The greater jihad focuses on internal struggle, or self-mastery. The lesser jihad deals with external evil and may include physical struggle.

Islam, like many world faiths, has various factions. "Fundamentalist" Islam tends to avoid compromise with other religions, including both Christian (often equated with "corrupt" Western ways) and Hindu. More moderate groups tend to show greater tolerance of other faiths and ways of life.

The primary driving force behind Buddhist ethics is detached compassion for all living things. There is also a strong ethic of renunciation for monks. Reincarnation and karma are also important, especially for the laity.

Buddhism began in India as something of a reform movement within Hinduism. It is drawn from the teachings of the Buddha (which means "the enlightened one"–it is a title, much like "Christ" means "God’s anointed one"). Buddha taught the Four Noble truths:

1. Life is suffering. Even when we think we are happy, we are in fact suffering.
2. Suffering is caused by illusion, attachment, and desire. Worse, this suffering is perpetual: after we die we are reincarnated, only to suffer for another lifetime. The conditions into which we will be reborn is determined by karma. One gets good karma by doing good actions, and bad karma by doing bad things.
3. The proper goal for humans is to stop their suffering, by eliminating their desires. If done correctly, they can even permanently break free of the karmic cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
4. One can do this by following the "Eightfold Path," which includes things like "right intention," "right livelihood," "right mindfulness," and "right concentration."

Two major factions within the faith are Theravada Buddhism, which is more philosophical and tends not to talk very much about gods and goddesses, and Mahayana Buddhism, which has a greater role for them. Mahayana is more common among the common people, many of whom regard Theravada as too austere and demanding. Theravada concentrates on personal renunciation and detachment, and is probably best practiced in a monastery. Mahayana stresses compassion for all living things.