Space II

 

The manned space program was, and continues to be, ambiguous--it is an odd mix of scientific research, human heroism, and national self-aggrandizement. Often it is juxtaposed against the unmanned space program, which both complements it and competes with it. The reason is this: unmanned probes are normally sent to scout things out first--often losing quite a few probes along the way. When the bugs are worked out, astronauts are then sent.

 

However, there are some that suggest that unmanned probes get far more "bang for the buck" than manned missions. They can do things that are more much more daring, go places that we would never dream of sending a human (like to Venus, or to the outer planets), and are much cheaper, too. However, they may lack the "crowd appeal" that manned space missions provide. And they compete for funds with the manned space program.

 

Interestingly, though, unmanned satellites are also the main sources of revenue from space, as well, which we will discuss further.

 

Earlier we mentioned the first satellites launched. These were the Sputniks of the USSR (1957) and Explorer and Vanguard of the USA (1958). These were basically scientific satellites that did things like study radiation in space or see if an animal could survive in space for any length of time. Within a few years people started looking for ways to use space in a more productive manner.

 

The first experiment was weather satellites. The first was the TIROS (Television and Infra Red Observation Satellite) series, launched from 1960 through 1962. This was followed by seven Nimbus satellites. These programs were spectacularly successful, and worked much better than weather balloons and hurricane-detecting airplanes.

 

A similar program was LandSat. This series of satellites also took pictures, but more of land than of clouds. These satellites were used for agriculture (watching crop types and plant health), geology, forestry, regional planning, national security, and law enforcement (drugs, large operations). Surveys and images from these satellites are used today for things like natural resource management and mining surveys.

 

The second important program was communications satellites. The first successful one was Telstar. It was launched in 1962. Owned by AT&T, it was also the first privately-sponsored space launch, and relayed the first transatlantic television signal and  the first space-relayed telephone call and fax. However, it was only useful for 20 minutes out of every 2 1/2 hour orbit! Satellites launched over the next few years (other Telstars, Relays, and Syncoms) were much better--some were geostationary (making them much easier to track). These could either be used to retransmit a television signal, or carry up to 300 telephone calls at once.

 

And of course there is a third use for satellites… spy satellites! Even before America gets satellites off the ground, efforts are made by the military to use them for the purpose of spying. The effort started in 1953 but is cancelled in 1958 due to security leads. Secretly, however, the program is resurrected as Corona. eight launch attempts are made in 1959 alone! Only two were total successes in terms of getting film back. While the first images were only so-so, they did succeed in taking pictures of China and Russia that U2 spy planes could not reach. Interestingly, the program was done pseudo-publicly; many were called "Discoverer" and also supposedly carried science experiments, too. The program is eventually re-cloaked, and 32 more spy missions are carried out from 1966 to 1971. By the end, the cameras could see objects only five feet across!  (The program is only declassified under Clinton 1995.)

 

Of course, we continue to have spy satellites today for things such as nuclear monitoring. Indeed, some classified satellites accidentally discovered types of pulsars!

 

Weather satellites and communications satellites (and spy satellites) are a part of our everyday lives now. However, some of the most impressive work has been with the exploration satellites:

 

Mariner 4 (USA 1965) took the first close-up pictures of Mars, and found that there were no canals.

 

Venera 7 (USSR 1970) was the first earth landing on another planet, Venus. It discovered that the place was about hot and full of sulfuric acid at high pressure.

 

Pioneers 10 and 11 (USA 1972 and 1973) were the first probes to fly by and take close-up pictures of Jupiter and Saturn.

 

Venera 9 and 10 (USSR 1975) took the first pictures of the surface of Venus.

 

Viking 1 and 2 (USA 1975) landed on Mars, took great pictures, and actually did sample analysis.

 

Voyagers 1 and 2 (USA 1977) took outstanding pictures of Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune.

 

More recent probes include the Mars landing rovers of this year (USA), and the controversial USA-ESA Cassini-Huygens joint mission to Saturn this year, which will (hopefully) include a probe of  Saturn's moon, Titan.

 

Finally, the Hubble Space Telescope has been a monumental success, in spite of earlier problems with the optics.

 

However, Bush's new Space Initiative is controversial, because it seems to divert funds from the (successful and productive) unmanned program to an expensive "vaporware" manned program that some consider to be of lesser scientific merit.