Mauryas

Indian History
(Ancient)
Mauryas

MAURYAS

The Great Mauryan Rulers
In the Greek accounts, Sandrokottas of Palibothra is described as a contemporary of Alexander of Macedonia who invaded India during 327 BC to 323 BC This decides the approximate date of Chandragupta Maurya. Princep's research decides the approximate date of Asoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya as in 3rd century BC Both these dates were adjusted with the reign periods of the three successive Magadha kings, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Asoka of the Maurya dynasty given in the Puranas. Thus, the date c. 320 BC was fixed as the date of coronation of Chandragupta Maurya. Max Mueller, in 1859 AD, finalized this identity of Sandrokottas with Chandragupta Maurya and declared c. 320 BC, the date of coronation of Chandragupta Maurya as the Sheet Anchor of Indian history. M. Troyer did not agree with this conclusion and noted this fact in the introduction to his translation of Rajatarangani of Kalhana. He even communicated his views to Prof. Max Mueller in a letter but did not receive a reply from him.

RISE OF MAURYAN DYNASTY
The Mauryan Empire was the first major empire in the history of India and ruled the land from 322 bc to 185 bc. Important rulers of this dynasty were Chandragupta Maurya, Bindusara, and King Ashoka. This empire reached its peak under King Ashoka. However, this mighty empire crumbled rapidly, under its own weight, soon after the death of Ashoka.
CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (322–298 BC)
Chandragupta Maurya was the founder of the Mauryan Empire. The origin of Chandragupta is shrouded in mystery. It is not clear if he belonged to the upper caste or the lower caste. At that time, Magadh was ruled by the Nanda dynasty whose rule was unpopular. Chandragupta founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda dynasty with the help of Chanakya (also Kautilya) who was an important minister in the court of the Nanda rulers. Chanakya was ill treated by the Nanda king and he vowed to destroy their kingdom. He met the young Chandragupta in the Vindhya forest. As Chanakya was well versed in politics and the affairs of the state, he groomed Chandragupta and helped him raise and organize an army. Thus, with the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta overthrew the last Nanda ruler and became the king. Chanakya became the chief minister in the court of Chandragupta.
The invasion of the northwestern part of India by Alexander in 326 bc and the subsequent establishment of the rule of Seleucus Nikator (one of Alexander’s general) was a thorn in the eyes of Chandragupta. Chandragupta firstly stabilized his power in Magadh and then began his campaign against Seleucus. After a prolonged struggle, Chandragupta was able to defeat Seleucus in 305 bc and annexed the entire Punjab and areas across the Indus River. According to the peace treaty with Seleucus, Chandragupta also got Kabul, Gandhara, and parts of Persia and married his daughter. In this way, Chandragupta became the undisputed ruler of Northern India. His fame was so widespread that rulers from far off kingdoms send their envoys to his court. Chandragupta also conquered parts of Central India and united the whole of northern India under Mauryan rule. After ruling for about 25 years, he became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara (296 bc–273 bc).
ADMINISTRATION UNDER CHANDRAGUPTA
Most of our knowledge about the Mauryan period in general and the rule of Chandragupta in particular is obtained from two important literary sources: the Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, and Indica, written by the ancient Greek writer Megasthenes (who was an ambassador of Seleucus Nikator and had come to the court of Chandragupta).
The Arthashastra talks about the principles of governance and lays down rules of administration. It also discusses in detail the role of the king, his duties, rate of taxation, use of espionage, and laws for governing the society. The Indica of Megasthenes, on the other hand, gives a vivid description of the Mauryan society under the rule of Chandragupta. Megasthenes described the glory of the Mauryan capital of Pataliputra. He also talked of the lifestyle in the cities and villages and the prosperity of the Mauryan cities.
Chandragupta had united the whole of northern India under one rule and the Mauryan Empire was the first large, powerful, centralized state in India. The Arthashastra laid the foundation of the centralized administration of Mauryan governance. The empire was divided into administrative districts or zones, each of which had a hierarchy of officials. The top most officers from these districts or zones directly reported to the Mauryan ruler. These officials were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining the army, completing irrigational projects, and maintaining law and order.
During Chandragupta reign, the state regulated trade, levied taxes, and standardized weights and measures. Trade and commerce also flourished during this time. The state was responsible for providing irrigational facilities, succor, sanitation, and famine relief to its masses. Megasthenes, in his writings, has praised the efficient Mauryan administration.
BINDUSARA (296 BC–273 BC)
Chandragupta, after ruling for about 25 years, became a Jain ascetic and left his throne to his son Bindusara, who inherited a vast empire that spanned parts of modern-day Afghanistan in the northwest, to parts of Bengal in the east. It also spread through large parts of central India.
Bindusara extended the Mauryan Empire southwards in the Indian peninsula as far as Mysore. He defeated and annexed 16 small kingdoms, thus extending his empire from sea to sea. The only regions that were left out on the Indian subcontinent were that of Kalinga (Orissa) and the kingdoms to the extreme south of the Indian peninsula. As these southern kingdoms were friendly, Bindusara did not annex them, but the Kingdom of Kalinga was a problem for the Mauryan Empire.
The administration under Bindusara functioned smoothly. During his reign, Mauryan Empire had good relation with Greeks, Syrians, and Egyptians.
ASHOKA (273 BC–232 BC)
Bindusara was succeeded by his son Ashoka, the most famous of the Mauryan Kings. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka. He undertook military campaign against Kalinga and, after defeating it in a bloody war, annexed it. However, the sight of the large-scale carnage moved Ashoka, and he embraced Buddhism. The war of Kalinga was the turning point in the life of Ashoka to the extent that he shunned all forms of violence and became a strict vegetarian. For the rest of his life, Ashoka preached the principles of Buddhism not only in his vast empire, but also sent missions abroad. Ashoka built a number of rock edicts and pillars to spread the gospel of Buddhism.
ADMINISTRATION UNDER ASHOKA
Before the Kalinga war, the Mauryan administration under Ashoka was not different from that of his predecessors. Ashoka, like previous Mauryan kings, was at the head of the centralized administrative system. He was helped by a council of ministers that was in charge of different ministries like taxation, army, agriculture, justice, etc. The empire was divided into administrative zones, each one having its hierarchy of officials. The top most officers at the zonal level had to keep in touch with the king. These officers took care of all aspects of administration (social welfare, economy, law and order, military) in the different zones. The official ladder went down to the village level.
The war with Kalinga transformed Ashoka both on a personal as well as public level. He made a number of changes in the administration. Ashoka introduced a new cadre of officials, by the name of Dhamma Mahamatta, who were sent across the empire to spread the message of Ashoka’s Dhamma (dharma).
ASHOKA’S DHAMMA
As Ashoka became a devout Buddhist, he began to spread the teachings of Buddha by issuing edicts, which not only propagated religion but also his ideas on society and governance. These edicts were sent to different parts of the empire, where they were engraved on rocks or pillars, for the common people to see and read them. These edicts were written in different scripts. Most of them were in Brahmi, which was common in most parts of the empire. The language was generally Prakrit (ancient language), as it was spoken by the common people, whereas Sanskrit was spoken by educated upper caste people. Some inscriptions were also written in Greek and Aramaic (an Indo-Persian language). As Ashoka wanted his message to reach all his subjects, he used the language they understood.
Ashoka believed in high ideals, which, according to him, could lead people to be virtuous, and peace loving. This he called Dhamma (which is a Prakrit form of the Sanskrit word Dharma). His rock edicts and pillar inscriptions propagated the true essence of Dhamma. Ashoka asked the different religious groups (Brahmins, Buddhist and Jain) to live in peace. His lofty ideals also included shunning violence and war, stopping animal sacrifice, respect for elders, respect of slaves by their masters, vegetarianism, etc. Above all, Ashoka wanted peace in his empire.
Ashoka believed that the King should look upon his subjects as a father treats his children. He took care of his subjects in various ways and was responsible for carrying out a lot of welfare activities during his reign like building of roads, planting of trees along these roads, wells, rest houses for travelers, hospitals for the sick, etc. The Dhamma Mahamattas (officers responsible for promoting the policy of Dhamma) looked after these welfare activities across the empire.
Ashoka had a friendly relation with his neighbors and sent and received envoys to/from them. He sent his son Mahendra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism there. He also propagated Buddhism to Chola and Pandya kingdoms, which were at the extreme southern part of the Indian peninsula. He also sent Buddhist missions to Burma and other Southeast Asian countries.
THE END OF THE MAURYAN EMPIRE
The great Mauryan Empire did not last long after the death of Ashoka and ended in 185 bc. Weak kings on one hand and the unmanageability of a vast empire on the other caused the rapid decline of the Mauryas. A number of small kingdoms emerged from the edifice of the Mauryan Empire

Before Alexander crossed into India in 327 B.C.E., he felt the necessity to trim down the army that he had led through Persia to accommodate the different climate and terrain that they would face. He burned all of the baggage wagons of Persian booty that hindered his mobility, and he dismissed a large number of his soldiers, reshaping his army with several thousand Persian cavalrymen.
The greatest of Alexander's battles in India was against Porus, one of the most powerful Indian leaders, at the river Hydaspes in July 326 B.C.E. Alexander's army crossed the heavily defended river in dramatic fashion during a violent thunderstorm to meet Porus' forces. The Indians were defeated in a fierce battle, even though they fought with elephants, which the Macedonians had never before seen. Alexander captured Porus and, like the other local rulers he had defeated, allowed him to continue to govern his territory. Alexander even subdued an independent province and granted it to Porus as a gift.
One tragic note about this battle is that Alexander's horse, Bucephalus, was wounded and died. Alexander had ridden Bucephalus into every one of his battles in Greece and Asia, so when it died, he was grief-stricken and founded a city in his horse's name.
Alexander's next goal was to reach the Ganges River, which was actually 250 miles away, because he thought that it flowed into the outer Ocean. His troops, however, had heard tales of the powerful Indian tribes that lived on the Ganges and remembered the difficulty of the battle with Porus, so they refused to go any farther east. Alexander was extremely disappointed, but he accepted their decision and persuaded them to travel south down the rivers Hydaspes and Indus so that they might reach the Ocean on the southern edge of the world. The army rode down the rivers on the rivers on rafts and stopped to attack and subdue villages along the way. During this trip, Alexander sought out the Indian philosophers, the Brahmins, who were famous for their wisdom, and debated them on philosophical issues. He became legendary for centuries in India for being both a wise philosopher and a fearless conqueror.
One of the villages in which the army stopped belonged to the Malli, who were said to be one of the most warlike of the Indian tribes. Alexander was wounded several times in this attack, most seriously when an arrow pierced his breastplate and his ribcage. The Macedonian officers rescued him in a narrow escape from the village.
Alexander and his army reached the mouth of the Indus in July 325 B.C.E. and turned westward for home.
In the summer of 325 B.C.E., Alexander and his army had sailed to the mouth of the Indus River, and they began to march west across the dangerous Gedrosian Desert. Nearchus was put in command of a fleet that would take the sea route west rather than marching through the desert. Alexander, on land, lost nearly three quarters of his army to starvation and the harsh conditions of the desert. When the survivors reached the region called Carmania, their fortune changed dramatically as they were welcomed into the prosperous land. Alexander and his men celebrated the end of their ordeal in the desert and traveled in luxury to Harmezeia, where they rejoined Nearchus and his soldiers. Then the whole army marched inland to Persis to rest.
In 324 B.C.E., Alexander furthered his mission to assimilate Macedonian and Persian cultures when he arranged thousands of marriages between the Greek soldiers and Persian women in Susa. Alexander himself took a second wife, Stateira, one of Darius' daughters.
In the spring of the same year while Alexander's army was stationed in Ecbatana, his best friend, Hephaestion, died of a fever. He was overcome with grief, and he consoled himself by leading a campaign against a tribe of brigands called the Cossaeans.
The next year, Alexander traveled with his men to Babylon despite numerous threatening omens. The omens were so frequent and ominous that Alexander feared that he had fallen out of favor with the gods. He died of a fever on June 10, 323 B.C.E.
The death of Alexander the Great is still shrouded in mystery to this day. It seems hard to believe that a 33-year-old man could die of natural causes that spring up out of the blue, and consequently, modern historians have made many attempts to explain exactly what happened. According to Plutarch, the events leading up to his death are as follows:
Alexander proceeded to Babylon, even after receiving word of several bad omens, such as ravens fighting each other over the city wall with some falling dead right in front of him, a man with a deformed liver being sacrificed in the king's honor, and his best lion was kicked to death by an ass. The god Serapis told a man to put on the king's robes and sit upon the throne. These all served as warnings to Alexander about what may lie in store for him, but they did not deter him.
Once in Babylon, he drank heavily at several banquets. One such banquet was hosted by his friend, Medius. In the Armenian version of the story, Psuedo-Callisthenes wrote that this banquet was a conspiracy involving Iollas, Cassander, and others who were unhappy with Alexander. They gave him poisoned wine, and immediately after drinking it, Alexander felt as if he had "been hit in the liver with an arrow." When he tried to throw it back up, he was given a poisoned feather, which ensured that the poison would reach his blood stream. He proceeded to get very sick and his condition deteriorated until his death. Plutarch did not believe this version, saying the sudden pain Alexander felt after drinking was a detail "with which certain historians felt obliged to embellish the occasion, and thus invent a tragic and moving finale to a great action. Aristobulus tells us that he was seized with a raging fever, that when he became thirsty he drank wine which made him delirious."
We will probably never know the truth, even though new theories are still coming out. We do know that on the 7th of June, 323 BC, the Macedonians were allowed to file past their leader for the last time and finally, three days later, he succumbed to the illness. Thus, on June 10, 323 BC, Alexander the Great died at the age of 33.

Chandragupta Maurya defeated Seleacus Nicator, a governor appointed by Alaxander(324bc)

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (reigned 321-296 B.c.), known to the Greeks as Sandracottus, founder of the Maurya empire and first paramount ruler of India, was the son of a king of Magadha by a woman of humble origin, whose caste he took, and whose name, Mura, is said to have been the origin of that of Maurya assumed by his dynasty. As a youth he was driven into exile by his kinsman, the reigning king of Magadha. In the course of his wanderings he met Alexander the Great, and, according to Plutarch (Alexander, cap. 62), encouraged him to invade the Ganges kingdom by enlarging on the extreme unpopularity of the reigning monarch. During his exile he collected a large force of the warlike clans of the north-west frontier, and on the death of Alexander attacked the Macedonian garrisons and conquer~d the Punjab. He next attacked Magadha, dethroned and slew the king, his enemy, with every member of his family, and established himself on the throne (321). The great army acquired from his predecessor he increased until it reached the total of 30,000 cavalry, 9000 elephants, and 600,000 infantry; and with this huge force he overran all northern India, establishing his empire from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal. In 305 Seleucus Nicator crossed the Indus, but was defeated by Chandragupta and forced to a humiliating peace (303), by which the empire of the latter was still farther extended in the north. About six years later Chandragupta died, leaving his empire to his son Bindusura.
An excellent account of the court and administrative system of Chandragupta has been preserved in the fragments of Megasthenes, who came to Pataliputra as the envoy of Seleucus shortly after 303. The government was, of course, autocratic and even tyrannous, but it was organi ed on an elaborate system, army and civil service being admim ered by a series of boards, while the cities were governed by municipal commissioners responsible for public order and the upkeep of public works. Chandragupta himself is described as living in barbaric splendour, appearing in public only to hear causes, offer sacrifice, or to go on military and hunting expeditions, and withal so fearful of assassination that he never slept two nights running in the same room.
Span of the Mauryan Empire
By the end of the third century BC, most of North India was knit together in the first great Indian empire by Chandragupta Maurya. His son Bindusara extended the Mauryan empire over virtually the entire subcontinent, giving rise to an imperial vision that was to dominate successive centuries of political aspirations. The greatest Mauryan emperor was Ashoka (286-231 BC) whose successful campaigns culminated in the annexation of Kalinga (modern Orissa). Overcome by the horrors of war, he was probably the first victorious ruler to renounce war on the battlefield. Ashoka converted to Buddhism, but did not impose his faith on his subjects. Instead, he tried to convert them through edicts inscribed on rock in the local dialects, using the earliest known post-Harappan script known as Brahmi.
The Mauryan economy was driven by agriculture. The State owned huge farms and these were cultivated by slaves and farm laborers. Taxes were collected on land, trade and manufacture of handicrafts were the other major sources of income during this era.
Following Ashoka's death in 232 B.C., the Mauryan empire started disintegrating. This was an open invitation to invaders from Central Asia to seek their fortunes in India. This period saw the rise of several smaller kingdoms which did not last very long.

The Edicts of King Asoka

King Asoka, the third monarch of the Indian Mauryan dynasty, has come to be regarded as one of the most exemplary rulers in world history. The British historian H.G. Wells has written: "Amidst the tens of thousands of names of monarchs that crowd the columns of history ... the name of Asoka shines, and shines almost alone, a star." Although Buddhist literature preserved the legend of this ruler -- the story of a cruel and ruthless king who converted to Buddhism and thereafter established a reign of virtue -- definitive historical records of his reign were lacking. Then in the nineteenth century there came to light a large number of edicts, in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. These edicts, inscribed on rocks and pillars, proclaim Asoka's reforms and policies and promulgate his advice to his subjects. The present rendering of these edicts, based on earlier translations, offers us insights into a powerful and capable ruler's attempt to establish an empire on the foundation of righteousness, a reign which makes the moral and spiritual welfare of his subjects its primary concern. The Australian bhikkhu Ven. S. Dhammika, the compiler of the present work, is the spiritual director of the Buddha Dhamma Mandala Society in Singapore.

PREFACE
This rendering of King Asoka's Edicts is based heavily on Amulyachandra Sen's English translation, which includes the original Magadhi and a Sanskrit and English translation of the text. However, many parts of the edicts are far from clear in meaning and the numerous translations of them differ widely. Therefore, I have also consulted the translations of C. D. Sircar and D. R. Bhandarkar and in parts favored their interpretations. Any credit this small book deserves is due entirely to the labors and learning of these scholars.

INTRODUCTION
//Dhamma sadhu, kiyam cu dhamme ti? Apasinave, bahu kayane, daya, dane, sace, socaye//.
Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity.

KING ASOKA
With the rediscovery and translation of Indian literature by European scholars in the 19th century, it was not just the religion and philosophy of Buddhism that came to light, but also its many legendary histories and biographies. Amongst this class of literature, one name that came to be noticed was that of Asoka, a good king who was supposed to have ruled India in the distant past. Stories about this king, similar in outline but differing greatly in details, were found in the Divyavadana, the Asokavadana, the Mahavamsa and several other works. They told of an exceptionally cruel and ruthless prince who had many of his brothers killed in order to seize the throne, who was dramatically converted to Buddhism and who ruled wisely and justly for the rest of his life. None of these stories were taken seriously -- after all many pre-modern cultures had legends about "too good to be true" kings who had ruled righteously in the past and who, people hoped, would rule again soon. Most of these legends had their origins more in popular longing to be rid of the despotic and uncaring kings than in any historical fact. And the numerous stories about Asoka were assumed to be the same.
But in 1837, James Prinsep succeeded in deciphering an ancient inscription on a large stone pillar in Delhi. Several other pillars and rocks with similar inscriptions had been known for some time and had attracted the curiosity of scholars. Prinsep's inscription proved to be a series of edicts issued by a king calling himself "Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi." In the following decades, more and more edicts by this same king were discovered and with increasingly accurate decipherment of their language, a more complete picture of this man and his deeds began to emerge. Gradually, it dawned on scholars that the King Piyadasi of the edicts might be the King Asoka so often praised in Buddhist legends. However, it was not until 1915, when another edict actually mentioning the name Asoka was discovered, that the identification was confirmed. Having been forgotten for nearly 700 years, one of the greatest men in history became known to the world once again.
Asoka's edicts are mainly concerned with the reforms he instituted and the moral principles he recommended in his attempt to create a just and humane society. As such, they give us little information about his life, the details of which have to be culled from other sources. Although the exact dates of Asoka's life are a matter of dispute among scholars, he was born in about 304 B.C. and became the third king of the Mauryan dynasty after the death of his father, Bindusara. His given name was Asoka but he assumed the title Devanampiya Piyadasi which means "Beloved-of-the-Gods, He Who Looks On With Affection." There seems to have been a two-year war of succession during which at least one of Asoka's brothers was killed. In 262 B.C., eight years after his coronation, Asoka's armies attacked and conquered Kalinga, a country that roughly corresponds to the modern state of Orissa. The loss of life caused by battle, reprisals, deportations and the turmoil that always exists in the aftermath of war so horrified Asoka that it brought about a complete change in his personality. It seems that Asoka had been calling himself a Buddhist for at least two years prior to the Kalinga war, but his commitment to Buddhism was only lukewarm and perhaps had a political motive behind it. But after the war Asoka dedicated the rest of his life trying to apply Buddhist principles to the administration of his vast empire. He had a crucial part to play in helping Buddhism to spread both throughout India and abroad, and probably built the first major Buddhist monuments. Asoka died in 232 B.C. in the thirty-eighth year of his reign.
Asoka's edicts are to be found scattered in more than thirty places throughout India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Most of them are written in Brahmi script from which all Indian scripts and many of those used in Southeast Asia later developed. The language used in the edicts found in the eastern part of the sub-continent is a type of Magadhi, probably the official language of Asoka's court. The language used in the edicts found in the western part of India is closer to Sanskrit although one bilingual edict in Afghanistan is written in Aramaic and Greek. Asoka's edicts, which comprise the earliest decipherable corpus of written documents from India, have survived throughout the centuries because they are written on rocks and stone pillars. These pillars in particular are testimony to the technological and artistic genius of ancient Indian civilization. Originally, there must have been many of them, although only ten with inscriptions still survive. Averaging between forty and fifty feet in height, and weighing up to fifty tons each, all the pillars were quarried at Chunar, just south of Varanasi and dragged, sometimes hundreds of miles, to where they were erected. Each pillar was originally capped by a capital, sometimes a roaring lion, a noble bull or a spirited horse, and the few capitals that survive are widely recognized as masterpieces of Indian art. Both the pillars and the capitals exhibit a remarkable mirror-like polish that has survived despite centuries of exposure to the elements. The location of the rock edicts is governed by the availability of suitable rocks, but the edicts on pillars are all to be found in very specific places. Some, like the Lumbini pillar, mark the Buddha's birthplace, while its inscriptions commemorate Asoka's pilgrimage to that place. Others are to be found in or near important population centres so that their edicts could be read by as many people as possible.
There is little doubt that Asoka's edicts were written in his own words rather than in the stylistic language in which royal edicts or proclamations in the ancient world were usually written in. Their distinctly personal tone gives us a unique glimpse into the personality of this complex and remarkable man. Asoka's style tends to be somewhat repetitious and plodding as if explaining something to one who has difficulty in understanding. Asoka frequently refers to the good works he has done, although not in a boastful way, but more, it seems, to convince the reader of his sincerity. In fact, an anxiousness to be thought of as a sincere person and a good administrator is present in nearly every edict. Asoka tells his subjects that he looked upon them as his children, that their welfare is his main concern; he apologizes for the Kalinga war and reassures the people beyond the borders of his empire that he has no expansionist intentions towards them. Mixed with this sincerity, there is a definite puritanical streak in Asoka's character suggested by his disapproval of festivals and of religious rituals many of which while being of little value were nonetheless harmless.
It is also very clear that Buddhism was the most influential force in Asoka's life and that he hoped his subjects likewise would adopt his religion. He went on pilgrimages to Lumbini and Bodh Gaya, sent teaching monks to various regions in India and beyond its borders, and he was familiar enough with the sacred texts to recommend some of them to the monastic community. It is also very clear that Asoka saw the reforms he instituted as being a part of his duties as a Buddhist. But, while he was an enthusiastic Buddhist, he was not partisan towards his own religion or intolerant of other religions. He seems to have genuinely hoped to be able to encourage everyone to practice his or her own religion with the same conviction that he practiced his.
Scholars have suggested that because the edicts say nothing about the philosophical aspects of Buddhism, Asoka had a simplistic and naive understanding of the Dhamma. This view does not take into account the fact that the purpose of the edicts was not to expound the truths of Buddhism, but to inform the people of Asoka's reforms and to encourage them to be more generous, kind and moral. This being the case, there was no reason for Asoka to discuss Buddhist philosophy. Asoka emerges from his edicts as an able administrator, an intelligent human being and as a devoted Buddhist, and we could expect him to take as keen an interest in Buddhist philosophy as he did in Buddhist practice.
The contents of Asoka's edicts make it clear that all the legends about his wise and humane rule are more than justified and qualify him to be ranked as one of the greatest rulers. In his edicts, he spoke of what might be called state morality, and private or individual morality. The first was what he based his administration upon and what he hoped would lead to a more just, more spiritually inclined society, while the second was what he recommended and encouraged individuals to practice. Both these types of morality were imbued with the Buddhist values of compassion, moderation, tolerance and respect for all life. The Asokan state gave up the predatory foreign policy that had characterized the Mauryan empire up till then and replaced it with a policy of peaceful co-existence. The judicial system was reformed in order to make it more fair, less harsh and less open to abuse, while those sentenced to death were given a stay of execution to prepare appeals and regular amnesties were given to prisoners. State resources were used for useful public works like the importation and cultivation of medical herbs, the building of rest houses, the digging of wells at regular intervals along main roads and the planting of fruit and shade trees. To ensue that these reforms and projects were carried out, Asoka made himself more accessible to his subjects by going on frequent inspection tours and he expected his district officers to follow his example. To the same end, he gave orders that important state business or petitions were never to be kept from him no matter what he was doing at the time. The state had a responsibility not just to protect and promote the welfare of its people but also its wildlife. Hunting certain species of wild animals was banned, forest and wildlife reserves were established and cruelty to domestic and wild animals was prohibited. The protection of all religions, their promotion and the fostering of harmony between them, was also seen as one of the duties of the state. It even seems that something like a Department of Religious Affairs was established with officers called Dhamma Mahamatras whose job it was to look after the affairs of various religious bodies and to encourage the practice of religion.
The individual morality that Asoka hoped to foster included respect (//susrusa//) towards parents, elders, teachers, friends, servants, ascetics and brahmins -- behavior that accords with the advice given to Sigala by the Buddha (Digha Nikaya, Discourse No. 31). He encouraged generosity (//dana//) to the poor (//kapana valaka//), to ascetics and brahmins, and to friends and relatives. Not surprisingly, Asoka encouraged harmlessness towards all life (//avihisa bhutanam//). In conformity with the Buddha's advice in the Anguttara Nikaya, II:282, he also considered moderation in spending and moderation in saving to be good (//apa vyayata apa bhadata//). Treating people properly (//samya pratipati//), he suggested, was much more important than performing ceremonies that were supposed to bring good luck. Because it helped promote tolerance and mutual respect, Asoka desired that people should be well-learned (//bahu sruta//) in the good doctrines (//kalanagama//) of other people's religions. The qualities of heart that are recommended by Asoka in the edicts indicate his deep spirituality. They include kindness (//daya//), self-examination (//palikhaya//), truthfulness (//sace//), gratitude (//katamnata//), purity of heart (//bhava sudhi//), enthusiasm (//usahena//), strong loyalty (//dadha bhatita//), self-control (//sayame//) and love of the Dhamma (//Dhamma kamata//).
We have no way of knowing how effective Asoka's reforms were or how long they lasted but we do know that monarchs throughout the ancient Buddhist world were encouraged to look to his style of government as an ideal to be followed. King Asoka has to be credited with the first attempt to develop a Buddhist polity. Today, with widespread disillusionment in prevailing ideologies and the search for a political philosophy that goes beyond greed (capitalism), hatred (communism) and delusion (dictatorships led by "infallible" leaders), Asoka's edicts may make a meaningful contribution to the development of a more spiritually based political system.

THE FOURTEEN ROCK EDICTS

1
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has caused this Dhamma edict to be written.[ Girnar version issued in 257 B.C. These fourteen edicts, with minor differences, are found in five different places throughout India. In two other places, they are found minus numbers 11, 12 and 13.] Here (in my domain) no living beings are to be slaughtered or offered in sacrifice. Nor should festivals be held, for Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, sees much to object to in such festivals, although there are some festivals that Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does approve of.
Formerly, in the kitchen of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, hundreds of thousands of animals were killed every day to make curry. But now with the writing of this Dhamma edict only three creatures, two peacocks and a deer are killed, and the deer not always. And in time, not even these three creatures will be killed.
2
Everywhere [ Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C. ] within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos,[ The Cholas and Pandyas were south Indian peoples living outside Asoka's empire. The Satiyaputras and Keralaputras lived on the southwest seaboard of India. Tamraparni is one of the ancient names for Sri Lanka. Antiochos II Theos of Syria (261-246 B.C.), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285-247 B.C.), Antigonos Gonatos of Macedonia (278-239 B.C.), Magas of Cyrene (300-258 B.C.) and Alexander of Epirus (272-258 B.C.). ] everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals.[ . By so doing, Asoka was following the advice given by the Buddha at Samyutta Nikaya, I:33. ]
3
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[ Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C. ] Twelve years after my coronation this has been ordered -- Everywhere in my domain the Yuktas, the Rajjukas and the Pradesikas shall go on inspection tours every five years for the purpose of Dhamma instruction and also to conduct other business.[ . The exact duties of these royal officers are not known. ] Respect for mother and father is good, generosity to friends, acquaintances, relatives, Brahmans and ascetics is good, not killing living beings is good, moderation in spending and moderation in saving is good. The Council shall notify the Yuktas about the observance of these instructions in these very words.
4
In the past, for many hundreds of years, killing or harming living beings and improper behavior towards relatives, and improper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics has increased.[ . Girnar version, issued in 257 B.C. ] But now due to Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's Dhamma practice, the sound of the drum has been replaced by the sound of the Dhamma.[ This probably refers to the drum that was beaten to announce the punishment of lawbreakers.] The sighting of heavenly cars, auspicious elephants, bodies of fire and other divine sightings has not happened for many hundreds of years. But now because Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi promotes restraint in the killing and harming of living beings, proper behavior towards relatives, Brahmans and ascetics, and respect for mother, father and elders, such sightings have increased.[ Like many people in the ancient world, Asoka believed that when a just king ruled, there would be many auspicious portents. ]
These and many other kinds of Dhamma practice have been encouraged by Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and he will continue to promote Dhamma practice. And the sons, grandsons and great-grandsons of Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, too will continue to promote Dhamma practice until the end of time; living by Dhamma and virtue, they will instruct in Dhamma. Truly, this is the highest work, to instruct in Dhamma. But practicing the Dhamma cannot be done by one who is devoid of virtue and therefore its promotion and growth is commendable.
This edict has been written so that it may please my successors to devote themselves to promoting these things and not allow them to decline. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had this written twelve years after his coronation.
5
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[ Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. ] To do good is difficult. One who does good first does something hard to do. I have done many good deeds, and, if my sons, grandsons and their descendants up to the end of the world act in like manner, they too will do much good. But whoever amongst them neglects this, they will do evil. Truly, it is easy to do evil.[ This seems to be a paraphrase of Dhammapada 163]
In the past there were no Dhamma Mahamatras but such officers were appointed by me thirteen years after my coronation. Now they work among all religions for the establishment of Dhamma, for the promotion of Dhamma, and for the welfare and happiness of all who are devoted to Dhamma. They work among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Gandharas, the Rastrikas, the Pitinikas and other peoples on the western borders.[ The Greeks (Yona) settled in large numbers in what is now Afghanistan and Pakistan after the conquests of Alexander the Great, although small communities lived there prior to this. ] They work among soldiers, chiefs, Brahmans, householders, the poor, the aged and those devoted to Dhamma -- for their welfare and happiness -- so that they may be free from harassment. They (Dhamma Mahamatras) work for the proper treatment of prisoners, towards their unfettering, and if the Mahamatras think, "This one has a family to support," "That one has been bewitched," "This one is old," then they work for the release of such prisoners. They work here, in outlying towns, in the women's quarters belonging to my brothers and sisters, and among my other relatives. They are occupied everywhere. These Dhamma Mahamatras are occupied in my domain among people devoted to Dhamma to determine who is devoted to Dhamma, who is established in Dhamma, and who is generous.
This Dhamma edict has been written on stone so that it might endure long and that my descendants might act in conformity with it.
6
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.. ] In the past, state business was not transacted nor were reports delivered to the king at all hours. But now I have given this order, that at any time, whether I am eating, in the women's quarters, the bed chamber, the chariot, the palanquin, in the park or wherever, reporters are to be posted with instructions to report to me the affairs of the people so that I might attend to these affairs wherever I am. And whatever I orally order in connection with donations or proclamations, or when urgent business presses itself on the Mahamatras, if disagreement or debate arises in the Council, then it must be reported to me immediately. This is what I have ordered. I am never content with exerting myself or with despatching business. Truly, I consider the welfare of all to be my duty, and the root of this is exertion and the prompt despatch of business. There is no better work than promoting the welfare of all the people and whatever efforts I am making is to repay the debt I owe to all beings to assure their happiness in this life, and attain heaven in the next.
Therefore this Dhamma edict has been written to last long and that my sons, grandsons and great-grandsons might act in conformity with it for the welfare of the world. However, this is difficult to do without great exertion.
7
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all religions should reside everywhere, for all of them desire self-control and purity of heart.[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.. ] But people have various desires and various passions, and they may practice all of what they should or only a part of it. But one who receives great gifts yet is lacking in self-control, purity of heart, gratitude and firm devotion, such a person is mean.
8
In the past kings used to go out on pleasure tours during which there was hunting and other entertainment.[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.. ] But ten years after Beloved-of-the-Gods had been coronated, he went on a tour to Sambodhi and thus instituted Dhamma tours.[ Bodh Gaya, the site of the Buddha's enlightenment, was known in ancient times as either Sambodhi or Vajirasana.] During these tours, the following things took place: visits and gifts to Brahmans and ascetics, visits and gifts of gold to the aged, visits to people in the countryside, instructing them in Dhamma, and discussing Dhamma with them as is suitable. It is this that delights Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, and is, as it were, another type of revenue.
9
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[ . Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Asoka obviously had the Mangala Sutta (Sutta Nipata 258-269) in mind when he issued this edict. The word here translated as ceremony is //mangala//.] In times of sickness, for the marriage of sons and daughters, at the birth of children, before embarking on a journey, on these and other occasions, people perform various ceremonies. Women in particular perform many vulgar and worthless ceremonies. These types of ceremonies can be performed by all means, but they bear little fruit. What does bear great fruit, however, is the ceremony of the Dhamma. This involves proper behavior towards servants and employees, respect for teachers, restraint towards living beings, and generosity towards ascetics and Brahmans. These and other things constitute the ceremony of the Dhamma. Therefore a father, a son, a brother, a master, a friend, a companion, and even a neighbor should say: "This is good, this is the ceremony that should be performed until its purpose is fulfilled, this I shall do."[ Other versions substitute the following up to the end of the edict. It has also been said: "Generosity is good." But there is no gift or benefit like the gift of the Dhamma or benefit like the benefit of the Dhamma. There a friend, a well-wisher, a relative or a companion should encourage others thus on appropriate occasions: "This should be done, this is good, by doing this, one can attain heaven." And what greater achievement is there than this, to attain heaven? ] Other ceremonies are of doubtful fruit, for they may achieve their purpose, or they may not, and even if they do, it is only in this world. But the ceremony of the Dhamma is timeless. Even if it does not achieve its purpose in this world, it produces great merit in the next, whereas if it does achieve its purpose in this world, one gets great merit both here and there through the ceremony of the Dhamma.
10
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not consider glory and fame to be of great account unless they are achieved through having my subjects respect Dhamma and practice Dhamma, both now and in the future.[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C ] For this alone does Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desire glory and fame. And whatever efforts Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, is making, all of that is only for the welfare of the people in the next world, and that they will have little evil. And being without merit is evil. This is difficult for either a humble person or a great person to do except with great effort, and by giving up other interests. In fact, it may be even more difficult for a great person to do.
11
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus:[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C.] There is no gift like the gift of the Dhamma,[ Similar to Dhammapada 354] (no acquaintance like) acquaintance with Dhamma, (no distribution like) distribution of Dhamma, and (no kinship like) kinship through Dhamma. And it consists of this: proper behavior towards servants and employees, respect for mother and father, generosity to friends, companions, relations, Brahmans and ascetics, and not killing living beings. Therefore a father, a son, a brother, a master, a friend, a companion or a neighbor should say: "This is good, this should be done." One benefits in this world and gains great merit in the next by giving the gift of the Dhamma.
12
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, honors both ascetics and the householders of all religions, and he honors them with gifts and honors of various kinds.[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C ] But Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values this -- that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions.[ . Asoka probably believed that the essentials (//saravadi//) of all religions were their ethical principles.] Growth in essentials can be done in different ways, but all of them have as their root restraint in speech, that is, not praising one's own religion, or condemning the religion of others without good cause. And if there is cause for criticism, it should be done in a mild way. But it is better to honor other religions for this reason. By so doing, one's own religion benefits, and so do other religions, while doing otherwise harms one's own religion and the religions of others. Whoever praises his own religion, due to excessive devotion, and condemns others with the thought "Let me glorify my own religion," only harms his own religion. Therefore contact (between religions) is good.[ (//Ta samavayo eva sadhu//). This sentence is usually translated "Therefore concord is commendable." //Samavayo// however comes from //sam// + //ava// + //i//, "to come together." ] One should listen to and respect the doctrines professed by others. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, desires that all should be well-learned in the good doctrines of other religions.
Those who are content with their own religion should be told this: Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, does not value gifts and honors as much as he values that there should be growth in the essentials of all religions. And to this end many are working -- Dhamma Mahamatras, Mahamatras in charge of the women's quarters, officers in charge of outlying areas, and other such officers. And the fruit of this is that one's own religion grows and the Dhamma is illuminated also.
13
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation.[ Kalsi version, issued in 256 B.C. Kalinga corresponds roughly to the modern state of Orissa. ] One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dhamma, a love for the Dhamma and for instruction in Dhamma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.
Indeed, Beloved-of-the-Gods is deeply pained by the killing, dying and deportation that take place when an unconquered country is conquered. But Beloved-of-the-Gods is pained even more by this -- that Brahmans, ascetics, and householders of different religions who live in those countries, and who are respectful to superiors, to mother and father, to elders, and who behave properly and have strong loyalty towards friends, acquaintances, companions, relatives, servants and employees -- that they are injured, killed or separated from their loved ones. Even those who are not affected (by all this) suffer when they see friends, acquaintances, companions and relatives affected. These misfortunes befall all (as a result of war), and this pains Beloved-of-the-Gods.
There is no country, except among the Greeks, where these two groups, Brahmans and ascetics, are not found, and there is no country where people are not devoted to one or another religion.[ The Buddha pointed out that the four castes of Indian society likewise were not found among the Greeks; see Majjhima Nikaya, II:149] Therefore the killing, death or deportation of a hundredth, or even a thousandth part of those who died during the conquest of Kalinga now pains Beloved-of-the-Gods. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods thinks that even those who do wrong should be forgiven where forgiveness is possible.
Even the forest people, who live in Beloved-of-the-Gods' domain, are entreated and reasoned with to act properly. They are told that despite his remorse Beloved-of-the-Gods has the power to punish them if necessary, so that they should be ashamed of their wrong and not be killed. Truly, Beloved-of-the-Gods desires non-injury, restraint and impartiality to all beings, even where wrong has been done.
Now it is conquest by Dhamma that Beloved-of-the-Gods considers to be the best conquest.[ . Perhaps Asoka had in mind Dhammapada 103-104] And it (conquest by Dhamma) has been won here, on the borders, even six hundred yojanas away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni.[ . Antiochos II Theos of Syria (261-246 B.C.), Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt (285-247 B.C.), Antigonos Gonatos of Macedonia (278-239 B.C.), Magas of Cyrene (300-258 B.C.) and Alexander of Epirus (272-258 B.C.). ] Here in the king's domain among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dhamma. Even where Beloved-of-the-Gods' envoys have not been, these people too, having heard of the practice of Dhamma and the ordinances and instructions in Dhamma given by Beloved-of-the-Gods, are following it and will continue to do so. This conquest has been won everywhere, and it gives great joy -- the joy which only conquest by Dhamma can give. But even this joy is of little consequence. Beloved-of-the-Gods considers the great fruit to be experienced in the next world to be more important.
I have had this Dhamma edict written so that my sons and great-grandsons may not consider making new conquests, or that if military conquests are made, that they be done with forbearance and light punishment, or better still, that they consider making conquest by Dhamma only, for that bears fruit in this world and the next. May all their intense devotion be given to this which has a result in this world and the next.
14
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, has had these Dhamma edicts written in brief, in medium length, and in extended form.[ Girnar version, issued in 256 B.C. ] Not all of them occur everywhere, for my domain is vast, but much has been written, and I will have still more written. And also there are some subjects here that have been spoken of again and again because of their sweetness, and so that the people may act in accordance with them. If some things written are incomplete, this is because of the locality, or in consideration of the object, or due to the fault of the scribe.

KALINGA ROCK EDICTS

1
Beloved-of-the-Gods says that the Mahamatras of Tosali who are judicial officers in the city are to be told this:[ Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C. These two edicts are found in two different places. ] I wish to see that everything I consider to be proper is carried out in the right way. And I consider instructing you to be the best way of accomplishing this. I have placed you over many thousands of people that you may win the people's affection.
All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire for all men. You do not understand to what extent I desire this, and if some of you do understand, you do not understand the full extent of my desire.
You must attend to this matter. While being completely law-abiding, some people are imprisoned, treated harshly and even killed without cause so that many people suffer. Therefore your aim should be to act with impartiality. It is because of these things -- envy, anger, cruelty, hate, indifference, laziness or tiredness -- that such a thing does not happen. Therefore your aim should be: "May these things not be in me." And the root of this is non-anger and patience. Those who are bored with the administration of justice will not be promoted; (those who are not) will move upwards and be promoted. Whoever among you understands this should say to his colleagues: "See that you do your duty properly. Such and such are Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions." Great fruit will result from doing your duty, while failing in it will result in gaining neither heaven nor the king's pleasure. Failure in duty on your part will not please me. But done properly, it will win you heaven and you will be discharging your debts to me.
This edict is to be listened to on Tisa day, between Tisa days, and on other suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by a single person. Acting thus, you will be doing your duty.
This edict has been written for the following purpose: that the judicial officers of the city may strive to do their duty and that the people under them might not suffer unjust imprisonment or harsh treatment. To achieve this, I will send out Mahamatras every five years who are not harsh or cruel, but who are merciful and who can ascertain if the judicial officers have understood my purpose and are acting according to my instructions. Similarly, from Ujjayini, the prince will send similar persons with the same purpose without allowing three years to elapse. Likewise from Takhasila also. When these Mahamatras go on tours of inspection each year, then without neglecting their normal duties, they will ascertain if judicial officers are acting according to the king's instructions.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[ . Dhauli version, issued in 256 B.C ] This royal order is to be addressed to the Mahamatras at Samapa. I wish to see that everything I consider to be proper is carried out in the right way. And I consider instructing you to be the best way of accomplishing this. All men are my children. What I desire for my own children, and I desire their welfare and happiness both in this world and the next, that I desire for all men.[ This is reminiscent of the Buddha's words: "Just as a mother would protect her only child even at the risk of her own life, even so, let one cultivate a boundless heart towards all beings." ]
The people of the unconquered territories beyond the borders might think: "What is the king's intentions towards us?" My only intention is that they live without fear of me, that they may trust me and that I may give them happiness, not sorrow. Furthermore, they should understand that the king will forgive those who can be forgiven, and that he wishes to encourage them to practice Dhamma so that they may attain happiness in this world and the next. I am telling you this so that I may discharge the debts I owe, and that in instructing you, that you may know that my vow and my promise will not be broken. Therefore acting in this way, you should perform your duties and assure them (the people beyond the borders) that: "The king is like a father. He feels towards us as he feels towards himself. We are to him like his own children."
By instructing you and informing you of my vow and my promise I shall be applying myself in complete fullness to achieving this object. You are able indeed to inspire them with confidence and to secure their welfare and happiness in this world and the next, and by acting thus, you will attain heaven as well as discharge the debts you owe to me. And so that the Mahamatras can devote themselves at all times to inspiring the border areas with confidence and encouraging them to practice Dhamma, this edict has been written here.
This edict is to be listened to every four months on Tisa day, between Tisa days, and on other suitable occasions, it should be listened to even by a single person. Acting thus, you will be doing your duty.

MINOR ROCK EDICTS

1
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[ Gavimath version, issued in 257 B.C. This edict is found in twelve different places. ] It is now more than two and a half years since I became a lay-disciple, but until now I have not been very zealous.[ First Asoka was a lay-disciple (//upasaka//) and then he visited or literally "went to the Sangha" (//yam me samghe upeti//). Some scholars think this means that Asoka became a monk. However it probably means that he started visiting Buddhist monks more often and listening to their instructions more carefully. ] But now that I have visited the Sangha for more than a year, I have become very zealous. Now the people in India who have not associated with the gods do so. This is the result of zeal and it is not just the great who can do this. Even the humble, if they are zealous, can attain heaven. And this proclamation has been made with this aim. Let both humble and great be zealous, let even those on the borders know and let zeal last long. Then this zeal will increase, it will greatly increase, it will increase up to one-and-a-half times. This message has been proclaimed two hundred and fifty-six times by the king while on tour.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[ Brahmagiri version. ] Father and mother should be respected and so should elders, kindness to living beings should be made strong and the truth should be spoken. In these ways, the Dhamma should be promoted. Likewise, a teacher should be honored by his pupil and proper manners should be shown towards relations. This is an ancient rule that conduces to long life. Thus should one act. Written by the scribe Chapala.
3
Piyadasi, King of Magadha, saluting the Sangha and wishing them good health and happiness, speaks thus:[ This edict was found inscribed on a small rock near the town of Bairat and is now housed at the Asiatic Society in Calcutta. Its date is not known ] You know, reverend sirs, how great my faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma and Sangha is. Whatever, reverend sirs, has been spoken by Lord Buddha, all that is well-spoken.[ This sentence is the converse of a similar one in the Tipitaka: "...that which is well-spoken is the words of the Lord." Anguttara Nikaya ] I consider it proper, reverend sirs, to advise on how the good Dhamma should last long.
These Dhamma texts -- Extracts from the Discipline, the Noble Way of Life, the Fears to Come, the Poem on the Silent Sage, the Discourse on the Pure Life, Upatisa's Questions, and the Advice to Rahula which was spoken by the Buddha concerning false speech -- these Dhamma texts, reverend sirs, I desire that all the monks and nuns may constantly listen to and remember.[ There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98-100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27-28. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207-221. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955-975. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421. ] Likewise the laymen and laywomen. I have had this written that you may know my intentions.

* * *
THE SEVEN PILLAR EDICTS

1
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus:[ The following seven edicts are from the Delhi Topra version, the first six being issued in 243 B.C. and the seventh in 242 B.C. The first six edicts also appear on five other pillars. ] This Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation. Happiness in this world and the next is difficult to obtain without much love for the Dhamma, much self-examination, much respect, much fear (of evil), and much enthusiasm. But through my instruction this regard for Dhamma and love of Dhamma has grown day by day, and will continue to grow. And my officers of high, low and middle rank are practicing and conforming to Dhamma, and are capable of inspiring others to do the same. Mahamatras in border areas are doing the same. And these are my instructions: to protect with Dhamma, to make happiness through Dhamma and to guard with Dhamma.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Dhamma is good, but what constitutes Dhamma? (It includes) little evil, much good, kindness, generosity, truthfulness and purity. I have given the gift of sight in various ways.[ //Cakhu dane//. The meaning is unclear. It may mean that Asoka has given "the eye of wisdom," but taking into account the context, it more likely means he has stopped blinding as a form of punishment.] To two-footed and four-footed beings, to birds and aquatic animals, I have given various things including the gift of life. And many other good deeds have been done by me.
This Dhamma edict has been written that people might follow it and it might endure for a long time. And the one who follows it properly will do something good.
3
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: People see only their good deeds saying, "I have done this good deed." But they do not see their evil deeds saying, "I have done this evil deed" or "This is called evil." But this (tendency) is difficult to see.[ Similar to the ideas expressed by the Buddha in Dhammapada 50 and 252] One should think like this: "It is these things that lead to evil, to violence, to cruelty, anger, pride and jealousy. Let me not ruin myself with these things." And further, one should think: "This leads to happiness in this world and the next."
4
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: This Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation. My Rajjukas are working among the people, among many hundreds of thousands of people. The hearing of petitions and the administration of justice has been left to them so that they can do their duties confidently and fearlessly and so that they can work for the welfare, happiness and benefit of the people in the country. But they should remember what causes happiness and sorrow, and being themselves devoted to Dhamma, they should encourage the people in the country (to do the same), that they may attain happiness in this world and the next. These Rajjukas are eager to serve me. They also obey other officers who know my desires, who instruct the Rajjukas so that they can please me. Just as a person feels confident having entrusted his child to an expert nurse thinking: "The nurse will keep my child well," even so, the Rajjukas have been appointed by me for the welfare and happiness of the people in the country.
The hearing of petitions and the administration of justice have been left to the Rajjukas so that they can do their duties unperturbed, fearlessly and confidently. It is my desire that there should be uniformity in law and uniformity in sentencing. I even go this far, to grant a three-day stay for those in prison who have been tried and sentenced to death. During this time their relatives can make appeals to have the prisoners' lives spared. If there is none to appeal on their behalf, the prisoners can give gifts in order to make merit for the next world, or observe fasts. Indeed, it is my wish that in this way, even if a prisoner's time is limited, he can prepare for the next world, and that people's Dhamma practice, self-control and generosity may grow.
5
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Twenty-six years after my coronation various animals were declared to be protected -- parrots, mainas, //aruna//, ruddy geese, wild ducks, //nandimukhas, gelatas//, bats, queen ants, terrapins, boneless fish, //vedareyaka//, //gangapuputaka//, //sankiya// fish, tortoises, porcupines, squirrels, deer, bulls, //okapinda//, wild asses, wild pigeons, domestic pigeons and all four-footed creatures that are neither useful nor edible.[ The identification of many of these animals is conjectural. ] Those nanny goats, ewes and sows which are with young or giving milk to their young are protected, and so are young ones less than six months old. Cocks are not to be caponized, husks hiding living beings are not to be burnt and forests are not to be burnt either without reason or to kill creatures. One animal is not to be fed to another. On the three Caturmasis, the three days of Tisa and during the fourteenth and fifteenth of the Uposatha, fish are protected and not to be sold. During these days animals are not to be killed in the elephant reserves or the fish reserves either. On the eighth of every fortnight, on the fourteenth and fifteenth, on Tisa, Punarvasu, the three Caturmasis and other auspicious days, bulls are not to be castrated, billy goats, rams, boars and other animals that are usually castrated are not to be. On Tisa, Punarvasu, Caturmasis and the fortnight of Caturmasis, horses and bullocks are not be branded.
In the twenty-six years since my coronation prisoners have been given amnesty on twenty-five occasions.
6
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: Twelve years after my coronation I started to have Dhamma edicts written for the welfare and happiness of the people, and so that not transgressing them they might grow in the Dhamma. Thinking: "How can the welfare and happiness of the people be secured?" I give attention to my relatives, to those dwelling near and those dwelling far, so I can lead them to happiness and then I act accordingly. I do the same for all groups. I have honored all religions with various honors. But I consider it best to meet with people personally.
This Dhamma edict was written twenty-six years after my coronation.
7
Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: In the past kings desired that the people might grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. But despite this, people did not grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, said concerning this: "It occurs to me that in the past kings desired that the people might grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. But despite this, people did not grow through the promotion of the Dhamma. Now how can the people be encouraged to follow it? How can the people be encouraged to grow through the promotion of the Dhamma? How can I elevate them by promoting the Dhamma?" Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, further said concerning this: "It occurs to me that I shall have proclamations on Dhamma announced and instruction on Dhamma given. When people hear these, they will follow them, elevate themselves and grow considerably through the promotion of the Dhamma." It is for this purpose that proclamations on Dhamma have been announced and various instructions on Dhamma have been given and that officers who work among many promote and explain them in detail. The Rajjukas who work among hundreds of thousands of people have likewise been ordered: "In this way and that encourage those who are devoted to Dhamma." Beloved-of-the-Gods speaks thus: "Having this object in view, I have set up Dhamma pillars, appointed Dhamma Mahamatras, and announced Dhamma proclamations."
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, says: Along roads I have had banyan trees planted so that they can give shade to animals and men, and I have had mango groves planted. At intervals of eight //krosas//, I have had wells dug, rest-houses built, and in various places, I have had watering-places made for the use of animals and men. But these are but minor achievements. Such things to make the people happy have been done by former kings. I have done these things for this purpose, that the people might practice the Dhamma.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: My Dhamma Mahamatras too are occupied with various good works among the ascetics and householders of all religions. I have ordered that they should be occupied with the affairs of the Sangha. I have also ordered that they should be occupied with the affairs of the Brahmans and the Ajivikas. I have ordered that they be occupied with the Niganthas.[ . The Ajivikas were a sect of ascetics in ancient India established by Makkhali Gosala, a contemporary of the Buddha. The Niganthas are the Jains. ] In fact, I have ordered that different Mahamatras be occupied with the particular affairs of all different religions. And my Dhamma Mahamatras likewise are occupied with these and other religions.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: These and other principal officers are occupied with the distribution of gifts, mine as well as those of the queens. In my women's quarters, they organize various charitable activities here and in the provinces. I have also ordered my sons and the sons of other queens to distribute gifts so that noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma may be promoted. And noble deeds of Dhamma and the practice of Dhamma consist of having kindness, generosity, truthfulness, purity, gentleness and goodness increase among the people.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: Whatever good deeds have been done by me, those the people accept and those they follow. Therefore they have progressed and will continue to progress by being respectful to mother and father, respectful to elders, by courtesy to the aged and proper behavior towards Brahmans and ascetics, towards the poor and distressed, and even towards servants and employees.
Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, speaks thus: This progress among the people through Dhamma has been done by two means, by Dhamma regulations and by persuasion. Of these, Dhamma regulation is of little effect, while persuasion has much more effect. The Dhamma regulations I have given are that various animals must be protected. And I have given many other Dhamma regulations also. But it is by persuasion that progress among the people through Dhamma has had a greater effect in respect of harmlessness to living beings and non-killing of living beings.
Concerning this, Beloved-of-the-Gods says: Wherever there are stone pillars or stone slabs, there this Dhamma edict is to be engraved so that it may long endure. It has been engraved so that it may endure as long as my sons and great-grandsons live and as long as the sun and the moon shine, and so that people may practice it as instructed. For by practicing it happiness will be attained in this world and the next.
This Dhamma edict has been written by me twenty-seven years after my coronation.

THE MINOR PILLAR EDICTS

1
Twenty years after his coronation, Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, visited this place and worshipped because here the Buddha, the sage of the Sakyans, was born.[ This inscription is found on a pillar in Lumbini where the Buddha was born. It was issued in 249 B.C., probably at the time of Asoka's visit to the place. ] He had a stone figure and a pillar set up and because the Lord was born here, the village of Lumbini was exempted from tax and required to pay only one eighth of the produce.
2
Beloved-of-the-Gods commands:[ Allahabad version, date of issue not known. The words in brackets are missing due to damage on the pillar, but they can be reconstructed from the three other versions of this edict. ] The Mahamatras at Kosambi (are to be told: Whoever splits the Sangha) which is now united, is not to be admitted into the Sangha. Whoever, whether monk or nun, splits the Sangha is to be made to wear white clothes and to reside somewhere other than in a monastery.[ The white clothes of the lay followers rather than the yellow robe of a monk or nun. ]

Fall of Mauryas
Emperor Ashoka ruled for 37 years. He died in 232 BC. During his reign he gave up war and preached peace in the kingdom. Seven kings (some say 10) followed Ashoka within a period of 50 years. The Mauryan empire was breaking up. There are different opinions about the fall of the kingdom. Some say that since the later part of Ashoka's reign was devoid of wars, the military were inactive and this weakened them. Others say after Ashoka there were no strong kings to rule such a vast empire.
Life of People in Mauryan Empire
Extract from "A History of India for Children" by Roshan Dalal:
Many people were agriculturists. They grew rice, wheat, barley, pulses, cotton and vegetables. Others were artisans. They specialised in different crafts, as in the earlier period. Textiles, wooden, and ivory objects, perfumes, jewellery from semi-precious stones, items of iron and copper and the shining black pottery described earlier, were among the things they made. Traders and merchants carried goods to far-off places by land and sea. Soldiers defended the kingdom. Ministers and officials helped the king. Philosophers and religious people wandered through the kingdom in search of the truth about life and death, and why life existed.
Sungas Dynasty
The last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was Brithadratha. He was killed by his own commander-in-chief Pushyamitra Sunga in 185 BC.
With the fall of Mauryas, India lost its political unity. Pushyamitra Sunga became the ruler of the Magadha and neighbouring territories. The north-western regions comprising Rajputana, Malwa and Punjab passed into the hands of the foreign rulers. The kingdom of Pushyamitra was extended upto Narmada in the south, and controlled Jalandhar and Sialkot in the Punjab in the north-western regions.
Pushyamitra died after ruling for 36 years (187-151 BC). He was succeeded by son Agnimitra. This prince is the hero of a famous drama by India's greatest playwright, Kalidasa. Agnimitra used to hold his court in the city of Vidisa, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. The power of the Sungas gradually weakened. It is said that there were ten Sunga kings.
Kanva Dynasty (75BC - 30BC)
The last ruler of the Sunga dynasty was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC. The Kanva ruler allowed the kings of the Sunga dynasty to continue to rule in obscurity in a corner of their former dominions. Magadha was ruled by four Kanva rulers. In 30 BC, the southern power swept away both the Kanvas and Sungas and the province of Eastern Malwa was absorbed within the dominions of the conqueror.

Magadha
It was during the 6h century B.C. that the city of Magadha rose to prominence in Bharat. It will be very much interesting to know the condition of Northern Bharat at and before the rise of Magadha. This was the period when people knew Buddhism and Jainism as religions. When Buddha appeared on the scene there was no paramount power. Bharat had become a congeries of states ( Mahajanapadas) amongst which some were monarchies and some republics. The 16 Mahajanapadas Kasi, Kosala, Anga, Magdha, Vajji, Malla, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Saurasena, Assaka, Avanti, Gandhara, and Kamboja by this time were in a race for supremacy.

Magadha thus was one of these Mahajanapadas. The other names of Magadha were Magadhapura, Vasumati, Brihadrathapura, Kushagrapura and Bimbisarapuri. The earliest dynasty of Magadha was founded by Brihadratha, father of Jarasandha and the son of Vasu. The number of future Brihadrathas fluctuates between 16, 22, and 32 and the total length of their rule is fixed at 730 to 1000 years. The Haryanka Dynasty of Bimbisara followed this. This probably was the beginning of the glorious period of Magadha. Bimbisara being an ambitious king added to the glory and territories of Magadha by his policy of annexation and matrimonial alliances. This helped him extend his kingdom both eastwards and westwards. He also had an efficient system of administration and justice. The Penal Code was there. Above all various provinces were given a lot of autonomy. Means of communication were improved. However there is no unanimity of opinion as regards to his religion.

Ajatshatru his son followed him. His reign saw a succession of wars with Kosala, Vaishali, the Licchhavis and Avanti also. He was followed by three other kings finally leading to the foundation of the Nanda dynasty, which was responsible for the rise of a legend Kautilya (Chanakya).
Puranas refer to 9 Nanda kings of which Dhanananda was the last. Nandas as per Puranas are stated to have a lot of wealth. Dhanananda according to some foreign accounts collected riches to the amount of eighty billions in a rock in the bed of the river Ganga. Puranas have references stating that the Nandas were non religious or Adharmikas. Finally the Dynasty was overthrown by Chandragupta Maurya.

Another landmark in the history of Bharat happened during this period- the invasion of Alexander. Alexander had got the information regarding the military strength and unpopularity of Dhanananda. The 19 months stay of Alexander affected Indian policy in the long run. History was giving birth to one of it's great heroes Chanakya during this time. He was a man having passion for learning. He went to Pataliputra for learning and disputation. Dhanananda was reigning here. He was giving a lot of money in charities through a Dhanasala with governing body whose president was to be a Brahmin. Chanakya was elected the president but was dismissed by Dhanananda on account of his manners and features. This was too much for Chanakya and he took a vow that he would ruin Nanda Dynasty. This was the reason why he trained Chandragupta who later overthrew Nandas and established Mauryan Empire.

Chanakya then served Chandragupta as the Prime Minister. His work Arthashastra even today is regarded as the text for management, finance and administration of affairs of state. The work not only mentions about the taxation system, the cabinet but also gives in detail how the spies should be employed.
In the early Pali texts, we get a political picture of northern India during Buddha's time. The picture appears to be that of a disintegrated country. India at that time consisted of a number of republican and a few monarchical states.The two main states given in Buddhist accounts are the Sakyas and Kosalas. The Vinaya texts along with some more Buddhist accounts mention as many as 'sixteen great states' or Mahajanapadas. These were:
Anga Magadha
Kasi Kosala
Vriji     Malla
Chedi Vatsa
Kuru Panchala
Matsya Surasena
Asvaka Avanti
Gandhara Kamboja

This political condition was suggestive of disintegration. The time was ripe for the integration of the dismembered units of the political fabric. The initiative was taken by Bimbisara, the Magadhan King. By now, out of the 16 Mahajanpadas, four became important. They were Kashi, Kosala, Vriji and Magadha. Magadha emerged successful in the battle for supremacy among these four states. The ancient state of Magadha is identified with modern Patna and Gaya districts of Bihar. Then it became a center for political activity for centuries.

Bimbisara: The first important king of Magadha was Bimbisara. He is said to be a contemporary of Gautam Buddha. His first conquest was Anga. Bimbisara was an expansionist. He controlled the western and northern frontiers of his state. He also had a control over the coast of Burma. Bimbisara kept contacts with the east coast of India through trade. He improved the means of communication.

Bimbisara realized the importance of efficient ministry for 'better administration'. He was also aware of the importance of 'agriculture' and 'effective exploitation of natural resources'.We do not have clear sources to determine his religion. Both Jainism and Buddhism claim him to be their patron. Nothing is properly known about his end either. It is not clear whether Bimbisara committed suicide or was murdered by Ajatshatru in 493 B.C.

Ajatshatru: Ajatshatru followed the expansionist policy of his father. He added more territories to his kingdom. His first war was against the king of Kosala. Ajatshatru won the battle and married a princess of the dynasty.
Jain texts give us an elaborate account of his conquest over the Licchavis. This battle lasted for 16 years. Ajatshatru used the natural resources to enrich his kingdom. He built a small fort 'Pataliputra' that became very popular during the Mauryan Period.

The victory of Magadha was a victory for the monarchical system. Ajatshatru died in 461 B.C. His son 'Udayan' succeeded him. Udayan was succeeded by four Kings who were all inefficient rulers. The throne was thus usurped by a minister called Shisunaga. After fifty years the throne went into the hands of the Nanda rulers.

The Nanda Dynasty:The Nandas are said to be of low origin. Mahapadma Nanda, the first ruler inherited a vast empire. He further expanded the empire. Mahapadma Nanda ruled for eight years. His eight sons succeeded him after his death.

The last of the Nanda rulers was Dhana Nanda. We have ample sources that give information of Dhana Nandas reign. According to Greek and local sources, he was an unworthy king. The unpopularity of Dhana Nanda, in some way, helped his overthrow by the first Mauryan King, Chandragupta.

Causes that helped the Rise of Magadha- We have already seen that Magadha was one of the 16 small states of India. It is interesting to study the growth of this state from a small Mahajanapada to an imperial power. There were some factors that helped Magadha.

1)The rulers who ascended the throne were all expansionists. Bimbisara, Ajatshatru and Mahapadma Nanda all conquered the neighboring states to extend the boundaries of their state.

2)The conquest of Anga linked Magadha to various commercial territories. This helped Magadha in increasing trade.

3)Magadha was rich in natural resources. The fertile soil and thick forests were its main features. This access to nature helped the state to a great deal.

4) The geographical location of Magadha was very good. The river Ganga served trade and commercial interest of Magadhan economy.

The rulers of Magadha, till Dhana Nanda, never ignored the importance of a 'good administrative policy'. The proper administrative system led to consolidation of Magadha.

Post Mauryan Age

The period (187 B .C to 320 A.D ) between the downfall of the Mauryan Empire and the rise of the next powerful Gupta Empire is marked by the presence of various dynasties in North, South and North- Western India.

In Magadha , the Mauryas were succeeded by the Sungas according to Harshacharitra of Bana , while reviewing the army under the pretext of showing him his forces , the base-born (Anarya) General Pushyamitra crushed his master Brihadratha , the Maurya who was weak in keeping his coronation oath. Pushyamitra is stated to have ruled for 36 years.
During his reign he had to fight to work against the Yavanas (Greeks) whose leader was Demetrios . The rule of Sungas for around 112 years proved important particularly for central Bharat is because if the Sungas had not driven away the Yavanas they might have succeeded in establishing their control in the northern India, as they already had conquered Saketa , Panchala and Mathura.

Brahmanical religion asserted an aggressive form during the Sunga period ,they were succeeded by the Kanvas where it is also believed that the Kanvas usurped the whole power of Sungas and ruled like modern Peshwas, reducing their masters to the character of nominal sovereigns . The next prominent post-Mauryan dynasty was of the Satvahanas or Andhras .
The inscription available and the Puranas indicate the origin of the Satvahanas somewhere in western Bharat , near Pratichthan ( modern Paithan in Aurangabad ). The most important king of the dynasty was Gautamiputra Sri Satakarni . He is described as the destroyer of the Sakas , Yavanas and Pahlavas .

It was during this dynasty that the foreign trade flourished and the Deccan played an important role in commercial relation of India and the west Paithan and Tagara were important marks of those days and the prominent harbors were Kopara and Kalyan . This was the dynasty during which Brahmanical religion and Buddhism flourished side by side . However the Satvahana kings themselves were Brahmins . Their reign was marked by their performance of religious sacrifices like Ashwamedh,
Rajasuya , Agnyadeya , Anvaramaabhiyana , Gavamayana , Aghirasamayana , etc. Buddhism also made considerable progress because of the policy of religious tolerance of the Satvahana kings. Almost all the caves so far found in Deccan , dedicated to Buddhism were excavated during the Satvahana period The next important period in the history of India , after the fall of the Mauryas is that of the Kushan Empire .
This is because it was during this period that 'nascent Christianity' met full-grown Buddhism in the academics and markets of Asia and Egypt while both religions were exposed to the influence of surrounding paganism in many forms and the countless works which gave expression to the forms of polytheism.

The most important king of the Kushana Empire was Kanishka. Change-Kiev, the Chinese Ambassodar in Badria has left an account of the migration of the Yuch-Chi to the South-west . Kushanas were a section of Yuch-chi race. Mathura and Gandhana schools of art developed during the Kushana Empire .
The post-Mauryan period gains importance in the history of Bharat because of the presence of the dynasties that contributed to ancient Indian polity , idea of kinship etc . Another characteristic of this period is that a large number of foreigners settled in Bharat during this period. Caste system leaving its rigidity far back , became flexible . There were Anuloma and Pratiloma marriages . Further people could change their professions to suit their needs .

All the three prominent religions , Brahmanism , Buddhism and Jainism underwent changes . While Vedic religion lost its popularity , Bhagavatism took the place. As far as Buddhism is concerned , Mahayan developed as a different sect.
The most important feature of this period was the thriving trade between Bharat and the Western world . Settlement of foreigners in Bharat gave impetus to trade . It was during this period,that the Roman Empire emerged as a paramount power in the western world which eventually provided grand opportunity for flourishing trade with Bharat .As far as administration is concerned , there was no substantial change in the system from that of the Mauryans.
The Kanvas are mentioned in the Puranas as the successors of the Shungas. The minister called Vasudev forcibly overthrew the last Shunga king. The Kanvas belonged to an ancient priestly family.
This dynasty consisted of four rulers. The usurper minister and the first ruler, Vasudev ruled form 72 to 63 B.C. His son Bhumimitra came to throne after him. Bhumimitra was secceeded by Narayan. Narayan ruled for 12 years. Further the kingdom went into the hands of Susarman.
The total period assigned to these rulers is 49 years. This dynasty of four kings ended in 25 B.C.
The puranas compliment them for their righteous rule. They effectively controlled over the neighbouring kings under their subjection. The extent of the Kanva kingdom appears to be restricted. The area was probably confined to Magadha alone.
Some scholars opine that the Kanva rulers had some links with the Panchala and other small kingdoms of Aryavarta. But to accept this thought some more studies and evidences will be needed.
Other Smaller Post-Shunga dynasties
With the decline of the Shunga power several states assumed independence. The coins reveal a uniform set of rulers at Kosala, Panchala, Kausambi and Mathura. These coins bear the names of rulers. The period covered is from the 1st century B.C. to the 1st century A.D.
These coins are punch-marked. Their symbols vary from one region to another suggesting their independent political existence.
These kingdoms and their rulers hardly had any link with each other or with any central authority. However, there is a similarity regarding a few personalities without details.

Among the important kingdoms existing around of Shungas were Vidisa, Kausambi, Kosala, Panchala and Mathura. It appears from some inscriptions that these kingdoms had some matrimonial ties with each other. All rulers issued coins with different symbols suggestive of their independent status. This proves the disintegration in these parts after of the Shunga Empire.
At Bharhut two gateways bear inscriptions suggestive of Shunga suzerainty. Accordingly, the Shungas were related to Kausumbi. The family might have been a feudatory of the Shungas. Ayodhya inscription of Dhanadeva points Aydhya’s association with the Shungas. It traces the relationship of this local ruler with Pushyamitra Shunga.
The other important ruling family was that of Panchala. The names of some of the rulers of this family are common to those of the Shunga dynasty. Panchala had a separate local dynasty, which might have owed allegiance to the Shungas.
The Mathura coinage suggests that there were two ruling dynasties here between the second and first century B.C. The first dynasty consisted of King Brahmamitra, Dridhamitra, Suryamitra and Vishnumitra. The second dynasty was comprised of Purushadatta, Uttamadatta, Ramadatta, Seshadatta and Bhavadatta.
These rulers belonged to the period when the Shunga Empire was breaking up under pressure of the Greek invasion. The minting of separate coinage by these Mathura rulers is a strong proof of their independent status.
According to the Puranas, after the Kanvas, the earth passed on to the Andhras. The Andhras are also known as Satavahanas in records. According to the Matsya-Purana, they ruled for an unbroken period of 460 years. And according to the Vishnu Purana, the Satvahanas ruled for a minimum of 300 years.
The starting point of this dynasty is palced at about 235 B.C. This does not match the Puranic source. The Puranas mention the murder of the last Kanva ruler by the first Andhra king in 28 B.C.
The Hathigumpha inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga provides some information about the early history of the Andhras. The Sanchi inscription of Rajansri Satakarni is identified with the third Andhra king, Satakarni. He was probably a contemporary of Kharavela and probably Pushyamitra Shunga.
The cave inscriptions of Nanaghat suggest that the Andhras held the coastal region of western India. The Andhra ruler Satakarni and his queen Naganika, a Marathi princess performed many sacrifices.
The spread of the coins and inscriptions of the Satvahanas covers, Western India, Ujjayini and Vidisa in the north, to the southern India.

In the early years, the Andhras seemed to be restricted to the Western portion of Malwa-Avanti. Ujjayini was their capital at this time. The Shunga kings held Akara or Eastern Malwa, with its capital at Vidisa. When the Shunga power came to an end, the Andhras annexed the Eastern Malwa.
The Kalingas occuping the country of the Mahanadi were another power emerging on the ruins of the Mauryan Empire. The Kalinga ruler challenged the supremacy of his Andhra contemporary Satakarni. Later, this ruler of Kalinga turned his attention towards northern India.
The Kushan Dynasty, with a number of worthy rulers, popularized India beyond its territorial limits. We observe a great amount of intermingling between India and other Asian countries during the reign of the Kushans.
There are literary, epigraphic, numismatic materials and monuments that are the main sources for the study of the Kushans.
Literary Sources
The Chinese records- The History of First Han Dynasty by Pan-Ku, The History of the later Han Dynasty by Fan-Ye, The Chinese chronicles of Ma-twan Lin shed light on the early history of the Kushans. Amongst the Indian literature on the Kushans, mention may be made of Kalhana's Rajatarangini, Kumarlata's Kalpanamandika and Asvaghosa's Buddhacharita.
Epigraphic Sources
The Panjtir Inscriptions, The Peshawar casket Inscription and numerous other inscriptions throw considerable light on the dates, events and the extent of the Kushan rule.
Numismatic Sources
Many problems of chronology, religious beliefs and extent of empire have been solved with the help of the coins of the Kushans period.

The sculptural Records
The sculptural relics and architectural remnants are valuable sources for our knowledge of the religion and art of the period.
Origin of the Kushans
Foreign invaders like Greeks, Sakas, Pahlavas and Kushans came to India. Settled in India, they gradually got into the Indian way of life and thinking. But the Kushans played a more significant role in ancient India than any other foreign rule in the post Mauryan period.
The Kushans were a branch of the nomadic people called the Yue-chis of northwestern China. In 165 B.C. the Hunas drove them. They began to move westward and came down in the valley, which was inhabited by the Sakas. The sakas had to leave the place yielding to the more powerful Yue-Chis.

Then driven by the Hunas for a second time, they marched further towards the south. They occupied Bactria by the beginning of the first century B.C. Finally the chief of the Kushan (Kuci-Shuang) tribe Kujala Kadphises or Kicoutsicou-Kie introduced a unified centralized government. This rule was called The Kushans Empire.
Kadphises I: Date of Kadphises I
Kujala Kadphises or Kadphises I was the first historical figure of Kushans. There is a good deal of controversy about his date. After marshalling all evidences, Dr. D.C. Sircar is of the view that Kadphises I ruled from 15 A.D. to 65 A.D.
The conquests of Kadphises I can be identified by the coins issued by him. The scholars surmise that in the early part of his life he might be having a subordinate status and needed the help of Hermaeus, the Greek King.

His coins showing the title Maharaja, suggest that he was successful in overthrowing the Parthan rule from the Kabul region. On the basis of coins and literary evidence, he must have ruled over Bacteria, a part of Parthis, the Kabul Valley, Ki-pin or Kafristan and northwestern India upto the Indus.
Kadphises II: Date of Kadphises
At the death of Kadphises I his son Kadphises II came to the throne. He ascended the throne in 78 A.D. He is said to have introduced the ‘Saka’ era from the date of his accession.
Kadphises II conquered Taxila, Gandhar and Punjab to his empire. He extended his domination upto the Mathura region. He was the first Kujala king to conquer India proper. His dominion included Afghanistan, Afghan Turkistan, Bukhara and parts of Russian Turkistan.
He issued gold coins. His coins contain the titles of Mahesvar, Rajadhiraja, and Sarbalokesvara, which confirm that he was a devotee of Siva. He ushered in a new era in the history of coinage by issuing gold coin. This medium of exchange continued upto the end of Gupta Age.

His period is also important for the prosperity in trade with the Chinese and the Roman empires. His relations with the Roman governors were cordial. The Chinese and the Roman merchants carried home spices, silk, gems and other merchandise.
After the death of Kadphises II, Kushan history passed into a phase of uncertainty. We have practically no knowledge about the period between the death of Kadphises II and the rise of Kanishka.
Kanishka I
There is an interval between the death of Kadphises II and the accession of Kanishka I. Uttar Pradesh was the find spot where the earliest coins of Kanishka were discovered. Hence many scholars opine that Kanishka might have ruled over parts of Uttar Pradesh as governor. It is probable that Kanishka ousted his rivals and expanded his influence over the Punjab, Sind and northeastern India.
Like Kadphises I and Kadphises II, Kanishka was a great conqueror. The coins issued by him and some literary evidences are the main sources to learn about his reign. The coins suggest that he ruled over U.P., Punjab, and Northwestern Frontier Province. It is also possible that a part of Sind, Mathura, Varanasi and Malava were the other territories under his dominions.
According to accounts of Alberuni, Kanishka’s territory expanded upto Afghanistan and the adjoining parts of central Asia. Hiuen Tsang says that Gandhar, Peshawar and the country to the east of Tsung-Ling mountains were included in Kanishka’s kingdom. The Chinese and Tibetan historians opine that Kanishka conquered eastern India, Ayodhya and Pataliputra. The Rajatarangini of Kalhan suggests that Kashmir was within Kanishka’s domain.
Kanishka launched a big march in the central Asian countries lying to the east of the Tsung-Ling Mountains. Kanishka however faced reverses at the hands of Pan-chao, the general of Chinese emperor Ho-ti. Kanishka had to surrender all his conquests in central Asia to China.

Kanishka ruled his vast empire with the help of local rulers or satraps. Some epigraphic and numismatic records give us the names of satraps under him. His capital was Purushpur or Peshawar.
Kanishka was a devout Buddhist of the Mahayana school by faith. The coins suggest many deities in the beginning but later only one i.e. Buddha. However, it is believed that he was tolerant towards all other religions.
According to both, Hiuen Tsang and Alberuni, a famous Greek architect under the patronage of Kanishka constructed the ‘Relic Tower’ at Peshawar.

Another of his contribution to Buddhism was the convocation of the Fourth Buddhist Council at Kashmir. In the Fourth Buddhist Council, the Mahayana school of Buddhism was preferred to the old school called the Hinayana school. One of the earliest images of Buddha was found on the coins of Kanishka.
Buddhism in its new form was spread to Tibet, China, Burma and Japan. Kanishka occupies the same place in Mahayanism that Ashoka occupies in Hinayanism.
Kanishka was not only the greatest king of the Kushans, but was one of the most outstanding figures of the history of India. A great conqueror and administrator, he combined in himself some of Ashoka and much of Chandragupta Mauryan.
Vasishka
Kanishka, after reigning for 23 years, died in 101 A.D. His son Vasishka succeeded him. He ruled for four years. His coins have been found in Mathura and Sanchi only, which shows that his dominion was reduced to the region of a portion of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh.
If king ‘Jushka’, as mentioned in the Rajatarangini of Kalhan, is the same as Vasishka, then he ruled over a part of Kashmir also and founded the city of Jushkapur which is modern Zakar
.
Huvishka
Huvishka succeeded Vasishka. He ruled from 106 A.D to 138 A.D. He was probably the same as king ‘Hushka’ as mentioned in the Rajatrangini of Kalhan. He founded the city Hushkapura in Kashmir.
During his rule another king of the name of Kanishka ruled simultaneously. There is a good deal of controversy with regard to the identification of this Kanishka. He is generally called as Kanishka II.
Huvishka was a powerful personality. During his reign the Kushan authority was extended to Mathura, Northwestern India and Eastern Afghanistan according to the Brahmi and Kharoshthi records. Kalhan mentioned his hold over Kashmir. A patron of Buddhism, he built many monasteries in Kashmir and Mathura.
Vasudev

Vasudev succeeded Huvishka. He ruled from 138 to 176 A.D. Since his coins have been found only in the Mathura region, it is probable that his extent of empire was confined to the Mathura region only.
His name Vasudeva suggests that by that time, the Kushans were totally indianised. He was a worshipper of Siva as it evident from the figure of Siva and a bull on his coins. After his death in 176 A.D. the authority began to disintegrate.
The history of the Kushan after the death of Vasudeva is not clear. We find two more kings-Kanishka III and Vasudeva II from the coins issued by them.
Kanishka III probably ruled after Vasudeva I for a period of thirty years. He probably had an authority over the Punjab, Afghanistan, Kashmir and Bactria. However, there are no evidences to support this contention.
Vasudeva II possibly succeeded Kanishka III. We cannot say with certainty what his relationship was with Vasudeva and the extent of his territory.
The internal revolts and external aggressions were the basic factors responsible for the downfall of the Kushans. The Kushan Empire broke down and in its place grew small independent kingdoms.
The Sasanian invasion from Persia was the external force that destroyed the Kushan authority. Ardeshir I, the founder of the Sasanian power in Persia, became a great menace for the Kushans. Towards the middle of the third century A.D. the Sasanian emperors of Persia established their authority over Bactria, Afghanistan and northwest India.
The Guptas replaced the Sasanian authority over northwest India later. When the Gupta Empire collapsed, the Kushans tried to raise their head. However, the Hunas and the Muslims shattered all aims. It was the Hindu Shahi dynasty that totally supplanted the Kushans by the end of the ninth century A.D.
The importance of the Kushan rule
Kushans extended their dominion in India by ousting the Saka-Pahlava power of northern and western parts. They broke apart the isolated character of Indian political and cultural life. They exchanged Indian ideas with the central Asian and its northwestern neighbors. No other Indo-Asiatic dynasty was masters of such a vast territory in central Asia, thereby raising the international prestige of India.

The Kushan period is one of utmost importance in the history of Indian art, which developed at four distant centers- Saranath, Mathura, Amravati and Gandhar. The 400 ft. high relic wooden tower of Buddha at Peshawar and the city of Kashmir are the best examples of Kushan art.
More significant was the art called ‘Gandhar art’. It was a blending of Indian and Greek art. This new school of art influenced all arts of India for five centuries. Through central Asia it traveled to China, Japan and the islands of Indo-China.
The court of Kanishka was a galaxy of men of letters. The celebrated writers like Asvaghosha- the author of Buddhacharita was at his court. Next to Asvaghosha was Nagarjun, the author of Prajna-Paramita-Sutra-Sastra who Hiuen-Tsang described as ‘One of the four lights of the world’ was also at Kanishka’s court. Charak, the great physician was another important personality of the Kushan period.
The Gupta Empire is said to have brought back the golden era in Bharat . During this period, there were a number of monarchical and republic states in ancient Bharat . The Nagas ,the Ahichtaras , the Vakatakas and the Maukharis were the monarchies present in ancient Bharat . There were also republics of Arjunayans , Malavas , Yaudhehas , Lichchvis , Sibis , Kunindas and Audembaras. Amongst all these Guptas also were present as a local power .

In the course of time they subdued all others and established the largest and the ever long lasting Empire of Bharat.Srigupta was the founder of the Gupta Dynasty followed by his son Ghatotkacha .The new king who followed was Chandragupta I having Maharajadhiraj as his title. He married a Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi , whose son Samudragupta proved to be an ambitious monarch of the Gupta Empire.
Samudragupta also known as Napoleon of India -brought wealth and fame to the Guptas . His conquest to southern and northern states extended his kingdom nearly all over Bharat . Samudragupta also established trade relations with Ceylon .

His empire comprised nearly the whole of northern Bharat with the inclusion of Kashmir , western Punjab,western Rajputana , Sindh and Gujarat with the highlands of Chattisagarh and Orissa and a long stretch of territory along the eastern coast extending as far as Chingleold and probably even further. Rama Gupta was the son and successor of Samudragupta .However RamaGupta was an utterly weak and incapable ruler .

The result was that the Saka king compelled him to agree to surrender his wife Dhruvadeshi to him . But Chandragupta , his younger brother saved the situation and killed the Saka king.Rama Gupta was succeeded by his younger brother Chandragupta II also known as Vikramaditya . The Gupta Empire had a tradition and policy of entering into matrimonial alliance with neighbouring states to extend their empire .

Similarly Chandragupta II married Kuveranaga and had a daughter Prabhawati Gupta who in turn was married to a Vakataka king. Though this is true , the Gupta kings were not less experts in actual warfare . The greatest of the military achivements of Vikramaditya was his advance to the Arabian sea and his subjugation of the peninsula of Saurashtra or Kathiawar . It was during his reign that the Chinese traveler Fahien visited Bharat . Thus it will be appropriate to say that the work of conquests begun by Samudragupta was completed by Chandragupta II.

Kumargupta succeeded Vikramaditya whose reign is considered peaceful and prosperous . However the problem of succession after the death of Kumaragupta happens to create a lot of confusion and unrest . The problem lies in the chronology as it is difficult to say whether Puru Gupta or Skanda Gupta succeeded him .

Kumaragupta had two wives. Skandagupta was the son of Devaki and Puru Gupta was the son of Autaradevi . But generally Skanda Gupta is regarded to be the immediate successor . The prominent contribution by him to Bharat is his victory over the Huns . His empire extended from Kathiawar to Bengal . He followed the policy of religious tolerance.However the powerful Gupta empire suffered a decline during the reign of Puru Gupta.
The downfall of the Gupta empire began from his reign. The successors of Puru Gupta were not capable of retaining the glory of the empire . The downfall can be attributed to the appearance of Huns on the scene . To some extent the Gupta kings were successful against the Huns.

Some historians hold the view that in addition to the invasion of Huns , the emergence of ambition local chiefs like Yasodharman also contributed to the weakening of the empire.Many chiefs in the later phase revolted against the Gupta empire . Thus the great civilization came to an end gradually.
The Gupta Age
The Gupta Age, rightly called as the ‘Golden Age of India', stands unique in the history of India. Peace, order and stability, political unification, economic prosperity, religious liberalism, all reached its zenith during this era.

Introduction
The breakdown of central authority of Andhra rule and Kushanas in northern Indian around 4th C. A.D, created a vacuum in this region. Emergence of number of small states created a political confusion and at least for a century, no great political power was born.
Chandragupta I took advantage of the then prevailing political situation. As a local chief in Magadha, he entered into matrimonial alliance with the Lichchavis of Vaishali. The joint effort of Gupta and Lichchavi forces carved out a small empire.
According to the Puranas, this empire included Magadha, Prayag and Saketta (Ayodhya) in the west. Hence, once again, Magadha became the centre of political activity, with Pataliputra as the metropolis of the newly-build Gupta Empire.
Sources
Various literary, epigraphic and numismatic sources furnish adequate information about the Gupta period. The Puranas, The works of Kalidasa, Accounts of Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien are the eminent literary sources.
Temple architecture was popular during Gupta period. Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh, Famous mural paintings of Ajanta and Bagh, A large number of copper plates, the Allahabad Pillar of Samudragupta, several gold silver and copper coins of the Gupta age throw considerable light on the political, economic and cultural conditions of India.
Accounts of Fa-hien
We have glimpses of general characteristics and tendencies of the imperial Guptas in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrim, Fe-hien. He visited northern India during the reign of Chandragupta II.
He introduces the Gupta state as the ‘Middle Kingdom'. Fa-hien observes, “People have not to register their households and attend to any magistrates and their ruler. If they want to go, they go, if they want to stay, they stay. The king governs without decapitation or other corporal punishment. Criminals are simply fined lightly or heavily according to the circumstances of each case”.
He further observes that the king's bodyguards and attendants all have regular salaries. This proves that they followed the wise policy of the Mauryans in paying fixed salaries to their troop.
Fa-hien also talks about the social life of the people and the food habits. He says, “People do not kill animals and do not drink wine or eat onions or garlic”. He records that the public morality was high.
Administration under the Guptas is characterized by the three-tier system in its proper functioning. The three units were - the centre, the provinces and their district units.
The Gupta rulers assumed the high sounding title of Maharajadhiraja, Parmabhataraka and Paramadaivata, as also Sarvabhauma and Samrat. The ‘Divine Right Theory of Kingship' was prevalent. The king was the focal point in administration, exercising all executive, military and judicial powers. The laws of and hereditary succession and to a certain extent, the screening the crown prince before proclaiming him as the crown prince was followed.
The Central Government
A team of officers known as Mahadandanayaka,Sandhivigrahika and Kumaramatya assisted the king in administering the state. Sometimes the three offices were rolled into the same person, like the Mhadandanayaka Harisena's father. The Gupta inscription mentions two terms for the ministers namely Sachivs and Mantrins.

The central hierarchy included- Sandhivigrahika - minister in charge of peace and war, Mahabaladhikrita - commander of the force, Uparika - the conveyer of the royal sanction of grants, Maha-partihara - the great chamberlain.
The clubbing of offices in the same person or the transfer from one situation to another was also common. The crown prince had his set of officials to assist him. They were called Kumaramatyas.
The Provincial Government
The Gupta monarchs themselves appointed the provincial heads. There is, no reference to the number of provinces or Bhuktis. The prominent ones mentioned are Tiraka-bhukti and Pundravardhana-bhukti.
Below Bhuktis, the division was the Vishaya or the district. Its head was called Vishayapati. There was always provision for promotion from the lower to the higher post, such as the Uparika being appointed as head of the bhukti.

Among the administrative officials at the provincial headquarters, Adhikaranas were the kumaramatyas or the ministers. Dandapasashikarana - the chief of police, Vinayasthiti sthapaka - minister for law and order, Bhutasvapati - chief censor, who took care of morality, Mahapratihara - the chief chamberlain. Mahadandanayaka - the chief justice or superintendent of police. Feudatory chiefs owing allegiance to the Gupta monarch are also mentioned in several records.

The district Government
This was the last unit in the three-tier system, Vishya, had an equally organized administrative system. The district heads, Vishyapatis were generally appointed by the provincial heads. Reference is also made in the Damodarpur Copper Plate inscription to a non-official advisory body for the head of the district.
The district government included the officers called- Nagareshthin - the leader of the trading convoy, Prathamakulika - the chief alderman and Prathamakayastha - the chief scribe. This board took care of the matters relating to grants of land and other such matters. The minor officers in the district were- Saulkaika- the superintendent of tolls and customs, Agraharika - in charge of religious establishments, Dhruvardharanika - the superintendent of the collection of the royal share in agricultural produce, Bhandgaradhikrita - the office in charge of the stones and the agricultural produce, Bhandagaradhikrita - the office in charge of the stones and the treasury, Utkhetayuta - the collector of taxes and talavitaka-the village accountant.

Village Administration
Some information is also available regarding the administration of a subdivision known as Vithi. Below the Vishya was the village. It was the lowest unit under Gramika-the headman. He received the king's dues and settled village disputes. Nyayakarnika adjudicated the village boundary disputes and the Dhruvadhikarnika collect dues, such as from the market.
The State head made proper arrangement for the realization of revenues and taxes in cash and kind. The Gupta administration on the whole was well organized. It ensured material and moral progress of the people, as reported by Fa-hien. It laid stress on the ethical and moral side with corrective and milder punishments. The Gupta kings never comprised with the security of the people or the smooth trade and communication channels in the country.
Religion
The Gupta period is noted for the ceremonial worship of images of Vaishnavite and Shaivite divinities. Temples of magnificent proportions were set up during this period. Buddhism and Jainism were encouraged equally with Brahmanical religion.
Buddhism with its two main school - Hinayana and Mahayana - and their offshoots thrived in this period. The main concentration of both the schools was ‘documentation of their philosophical doctrines'. The Chinese pilgrim Fa-hien refers to monasteries of the Hinayana cult. The goddess Tara - the personification of Knowledge (pradnya) appears along with Buddha at some places. Manjusrhi, the god of the wisdom is sometimes associated with Lakshmi or Sarasvati or both.
Buddhism was popular in Kashmir, Afghanistanand the Punjab. Mathura, Bodh Gaya, sarnath, Praharpur, Ajanta, Nalanda and Kanchi were the places of Buddhist faith. The Buddhist monasteries received great donations from tolerant Gupta kings.
Buddhism underwent transformation from a simple moral code to the most complex system of Mahayanism. This led to developments of Vajrayana. It came closer to Hinduism with the introduction of Bhaktism.
The Buddhists also accepted the concept of the Hindu Trinity - Brahma-Vishnu and Siva-. They confirmed Buddha as an incarnation of Shiva. Thus, the spirit of toleration and religious understanding, were the religious highlights of the period.
The Brahmanical religion was equally practiced by the people. Several names of lord Vishnu are noticed in the Gupta inscriptions. These include names such as Ananta-swamin, Chakrapani, Govinda, Narayana, etc. In this period, Emusha or Boar was looked upon as an incarnation of Narayana- Vishnu. Vasudeva- Krishna and his mother Devaki are as well noticed in a Gupta inscription of Skandagupta from Bhitari. Lakshmi or Shri is associated with Vishnu as his wife. In a number of inscriptions Vishnu is mentioned only as Bhagavat.
Besides Vaishnavism, Shaivism also flourished during the Gupta period. Kumargupta seems to have favoured the Skandha cult of Shaivism. Several Shivalings as well as coins having a picture of peacock have been found of his rule. Along with Shiva, Surya and Shakti were equally worshiped. Inscriptions of this particular age record endowments for a certain Sun temple. The Shiva-Shakti cult provided the base for Gansesa and Karttikeya worship.

The worship of Krishna and Baladeva in the Tamil country about the time of the Guptas is evident from the literature of this region. The south became a stronghold of the Bhagavata religion.

Like Buddhism, Jainism too had taken firm root throughout India by the third century. The division of the Jains into Shwetambaras and Digambaras had taken place much earlier. In the Gupta period, several inscriptions record dedication of Jain images.

As in any other field, the Gupta period achieved glory in the field of religion too. The Gupta rulers were known for their liberal religious policy. The remarkable sprit of tolerance and harmony among the followers of the three faiths was a remarkable feature of the Gupta Age.
Society
Fa-hien has described the social life in India during the Gupta age very well. His accounts tally with the other contemporary sources.
The caste system and the division of the society in four Varnas still continued. However, the division was not rigid. The Guptas themselves were Vaishyas by caste. The assimilation of foreigners into Indian society had become the normal feature of the society by now. Literature and inscriptions of the time provide instances of inter-caste marriages.
The position of women in the society was not much different from those in the preceding period. By and large, the girls of high families had good opportunities. They had complete charge of the household.

The parents generally settled the marriages of their children, but the gandharva form of marriage also existed. There are also instances of remarriage of widow called punarbhu.

The literature of the Gupta age suggests the continuity of a fairly high standard of living. Jewels, ornaments, cosmetic items and silk garments were, of course, the privilege of the upper class. The Gupta literature notices the preparation of different kinds of essences, scented hair oils and perfumes used by the people.
The food habits of the people do not show any appreciable change. Fa-hien refers to the non-killing of animals, abstinence in drinks and prohibition of eating garlic or onions among the people of Madyadesha.
The high level of the town culture in this period suggests refined, delicate and artistic taste of the people of different groups.
Economy
The improved system of agriculture, industry and trade evolved in the Kushana period made considerable progress in the Gupta period. Agricultural implements and operations right from sowing to reaping continued unchanged. Irrigational facilities from dams and rivers were very well operative, as is evident from the restoration of the Sudarsana Lake at Girnar in the time of Skandagupta.
Different types of crops are noticed in the Amarakosa and the Brihat-Samhita. These include rice of several varieties, wheat, barley, lentils and oil-seeds. Variety of vegetables, spices and medicinal and herbal products were grown by in the fields.Some areas had their own specialty of production. Saffron was a native product of the lands on the banks of the Sindhu or of Kashmir, Pepper, Cardamom and Sandalwood were the products of the Malaya hill in the Pandya country. Encouragement was given by the State to bring lands into cultivation. The industries of the time centered on the manufacture of textiles of fine varieties, weaving in gold or silver brocade, spotted muslin and tie-&-dye work. Leather goods were also produced in large volumes.
Technical knowledge was utilized for the manufacture of metals. A copper statue of the Buddha, 7 & ?” in height was recovered from Sultanganj. The famous iron pillar of king Chandra Mehrauli, over 23' high and 16'-4 in diameter, is in very good rust-free condition even after a lapse of over sixteen centuries. Pearl was the most popular jewel during this time. The art of the worker on semi-precious stones, like beads, jasper etc., was in very advanced stage.

Internal trade and commerce, as also trade with the outside world had tremendous potential. Security and supply of goods facilitated trade and commercial contacts. The Divyavadana refers to merchants Sailing from Sopara in boats that were capable of accommodating as many as five hundred persons. The caravan traders looked after the inland demands of the people. There are references of guilds of artisans and traders. A concrete example of the working of a guild in this period is provided by the Indore Copper Plate inscription of the time of Skandagupta.
The bad side of a free economy, the forced labour, vishti and slavery existed in the society. Hired labour was employed for agriculture, animal rearing, industry and trade as also for domestic purposes.
The migration of skilled craftsmen from one place to another was quite usual. The articles of export generally included spikenard, typically Indian spices such as Cinnamon, Long pepper, White pepper, Clove and other aromatics. Besides, Indian sandalwood, musk and saffron were also exported to various countries. The import items included the best breed of horses from Arabia and Persia and ivory from Ethiopia.
While the trading class prospered and the people in the towns were rich, it was just the opposite with the rural people. The reasons for their poor condition could be the Tenure factors. The Avadana literature refers to different kinds of famines-chanchu, svetashthi and salakavritihi. The Duration of such calamities could be as long as Twelve years. Hence, the people engaged in agriculture were in distress.
Literature
Big centres of learning had come up in the Gupta period. These were the centres to meet the requirements of the monks, but the curriculum of studies was secular and fairly comprehensive. It included subjects various subjects, one such institution was Nalanda in Bihar. Other important learning centres were Vallabhi in Kathiawar and Kanchi in the South.
Sakraditya, identified by some with Kumaragupta (fifth century A.D.) was the founder of the Nalanda University. When Hieun-Tsang visited this place in the seventh century A.D., he found there six monasteries built by many kings.
The Gupta rulers were patrons of Sanskrit learning and literature. Samudragupta, according to Harisena, was proficient in music and signing. He earned for himself the title of ‘the king of poets’ because of his poetical achievements.
In this period the set of eighteen Puranas and the Smriritis were completed. Equal amount of progress was made in the field of secular literature as well. Dramatists and poets like Kalidasa flourished in this period.
The inscriptions of this period reveal the maturity of the high-flown kavya style. The Dharmashastra of Katyayana, and the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana are both attributed to this period. In the realm of philosophy, Nagarjuna’s contribution stands supreme. He was the propagator of the Madhyamika schools of Buddhist thought.

Kalidas
The secular literature of the Gupta age is connected with Kalidas who has contributed a great deal to Sanskrit literature. He is regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist who enjoyed a high reputation and popularity through the ages. He was associated with Chandragupta II. Though various historians differ, the fourth century A.D. is the more probable date of the poet.
The best-known work of Kalidas is his drama Shakuntal based on a story recorded in the Mahabharat. He introduced several slight but effective changes in the original plot. His other two dramas are Vikramorvahsi and Malavikagnimitra.
Kalidas was equally brilliant in the Composition of the Kavyas or poetry. His two mahakavyas - Raghuvamsa and Kumarasambhav, and the lyrical poem Meghadut are regarded as gems of Sanskrit poetry. He stands unsurpassed and unrivalled both in drama and poetry.