A) Although people used to believe that writing followed reading, the two are now understood to develop together.
i. This past view emphasized penmanship by having children practice copying increasingly complicated text. Children were not encouraged to express their ideas using writing.
ii. Current views recognize that writing develops in an observable developmental sequence. B) Development of Writing i. In the scribble stage, the child makes marks on the paper that initially appear random but increasingly resemble text. a) Scribbling allows children to develop control over writing implements. b) In this stage, adults can scaffold development by modeling writing. ii. In the linear repetitive stage, children understand basic principles of text organization and repeat linear patterns of marks on a page. In this stage, children think the size of the word relates to the size of the referent. iii. In the random letter stage, children learn to draw recognizable letters and produce them in random organizations, accompanied by some forms that are similar to but are not letters.
iv. In the letter-name, or phonetic, stage, children write phonetically correct text using idiosyncratic, or invented, spelling. Some letters may be written incorrectly.
v. In the transitional spelling stage, children increasingly use accurate spelling for familiar words but phonetic spelling for novel words.
vi. The achievement of conventional spelling is a gradual process. ChildrenŐs early spelling attempts should be encouraged to promote ultimate mastery.
C) Children must learn the conventions of language.
i. One convention is directionality.
ii. Children may be confused by the Ňnegative spaceÓ between words, and try to fill it with an idiosyncratic symbol, such as a period.
iii. Understanding of abbreviations will occur only in children with welldeveloped concepts of the written word.
D) Teachers should emphasize the process of writing by encouraging children to use writing in meaningful activities and de-emphasizing isolated instruction.
i. Journals can be useful for children of any age.
ii. Observation of children is necessary to provide activities appropriate for childrenŐs changing abilities. A structured system for writing observation is very helpful.
iii. Focus lessons, involving discussion of and reflection on known conventions and writing strategies, are appropriate for children in the early primary grades.
E) Oral language is clearly connected to literacy competence.
i. Oral language can be used to encourage and assess literacy skills before formal instruction is appropriate.
ii. Engaging and unscripted experience, such as classroom visits, or dramatic play can encourages oral communication, which promotes the acquisition of vocabulary. This vocabulary can then be related to written words.
8. Children who view themselves as successful readers will be more motivated to engage in literacy activities.
A) Linking literacy activities to childrenŐs existing interests promotes positive engagement.
B) Respecting childrenŐs writing efforts by paying attention and keeping their work is a necessary part of promoting self-respect and self-esteem.
C) The communication triad (speaking, reading and writing) should be used in all instruction in every subject.
9. TeachersŐ use of language will facilitate childrenŐs acquisition of literacy skills.
A) Reading aloud
i. demonstrates the method and advantages of reading
ii. provides practice in understanding stories and predicting text while exposing children to new information.
iii. allows children to experience text beyond their own reading ability B) In shared reading, teachers take primary responsibility for reading but children are actively involved via discussion and prediction, including shared reference to the booksŐ illustrations and text. This approach increases children's involvement in the activity and scaffolds critical reading skills such as prediction.
C) Journals allow children to practice composition, increase children's interest in literacy activities and can be individualized to any skill level.
D) Other literacy activities include a word wall, recipe cards, songbooks, menus, theatre, and math word problems.
10. Assessing Literacy
A) Assessment has three components: children's actual writing, childrenŐs knowledge of books and print, and childrenŐs reading ability.
B) Observation allows teachers to determine the child's zone of proximal development for reading and writing as well as topics of interest for future projects' content.
C) Assessing childrenŐs understanding of books goes beyond phonics and reading, to include conventions such as the front and back of a book or the location of the title.
D) Assessing reading requires careful attention to a childŐs spoken errors and self-correction as well as the ability to infer meaning.
11. Children with Special Needs
A) Special needs children may need more assistance in developing literacy strategies, and in developing meanings for words. Extra teacher attention and time, as well as specific strategy instruction, can be very helpful.
B) Physical disabilities may require special teaching materials, such as large print books or assistive technology.
C) Positive expectations are particularly important for children with special needs.
12. Celebrating Diversity
A) Children from diverse backgrounds must have ways of connecting class activities and topics to their own experience.
B) Children must learn the contexts in which dialects are appropriate, and understand that in some contexts Standard English is necessary.
C) Grouping strategies often specifically target ESL students, thereby resulting in higher levels of failure among these students.
D) Some children may have difficulty with some English morphemes and syntactic structures, and teachers must be supportive of the English efforts of these children.