i. Cognition refers to the inner processes and products of the mind (e.g. problem solving, categorizing, day-dreaming)
ii. Piaget's Stages of Development
a) Sensorimotor behavior (0-2 years) is based on reflex action and lack of symbolic thought. During this period the child acquires object permanence.
b) Preoperational children (2-7 years) develop symbolism, leading to imaginary play and the growth of language. However, these children are egocentric and their problem solving efforts are limited by centration.
c) Concrete Operational children (7-12 years) develop reversibility and the ability to reason logically. They decenter, coordinating information from multiple aspects of an activity.
d) Stages indicate invariant order and qualitative change.
iii. Vygotsky
a) In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky's theory emphasizes the role of social interaction in cognitive development.
b) Vygotsky describes the development of intersubjectivity, during which two people approach a task with different understandings but complete the task with a shared understanding.
c) This guidance given to a learner, which changes with development of the child or situation, is called scaffolding.
iv. Biological Explanations
a) The brain is wired to process information in different ways.
Human brains appear to be pre-wired for some capabilities such as oral language, but there is little evidence to support the popular idea that hemispheric dominance requires different kinds of teaching.
b) Experiences and human need may be reasons why cells differentiate in various locations of the brain.
v. Children learn through exploration, problem-solving and new challenges.
4. Celebrating Diversity
A) Vygotsky highlights the importance of culture and experience in shaping individuals' understanding of problem-solving and interpersonal situations.
B) Parents' views must be respected, although teachers should not engage in disciplinary or instructional strategies that violate their own beliefs and values.