increasingly differentiated and communications become increasingly complex.
A) Referential language emphasizes nouns and objects, while expressive language
emphasizes social relationships.
B) Idiomorphs are idiosyncratic words children develop for related objects or actions.
C) By three years old, children are beginning to construct questions and negatives.
D) By kindergarten, children have mastered the basic structures of their native
language. However, these children commonly make errors by applying rules to irregular words (called "overregularization").
6. Fostering Language Development
A) Children are taught language informally, by having language addressed to them and hearing others use it interactively. Teachers can also use language informally by responding to children's spoken overtures and asking open-ended questions.
B) Communication is its own reward, and adults should (and generally do) focus on
the content rather than the form of young children's communication. Teachers can use extensions to acknowledge content while modeling correct form.
C) Early errors (particularly those based on misuse of grammatical rules) are not
indicative of later language skills.
D) Children learn all aspects of language simultaneously, and teachers should not try to differentiate the different language systems.
E) Teachers should encourage children's creative use of language, while emphasizing the goal of communicating meaning to others.
F) Children are adept at differentiating among different language environments.
G) Theoretical Influences on language instruction
i. Teachers who have children practice elements of language development and give clear and specific feedback use the behaviorist model.
ii. Teachers who emphasize active learning, exploratory activities and adult modeling, use the constructivist model.
7. The term kidwatching emphasizes the importance of observing children in order to
assess language development. Teachers should observe children in multiple contexts, using language for multiple purposes. Effective communication is more important than any specific ability, and growth in knowledge of syntax and vocabulary should be the basis for assessment.
8. The School Setting
A) Commercial programs are problematic, because they decontextualize language
while reducing individualization and encouraging passive learning.
B) Interesting environments and activities that promote discussion foster language learning.
C) Often, the home environment is more conducive to language learning than the school.
D) Children's literature not only provides language experiences, but also emphasizes
the musical and poetic aspects of language.
i. Narrative stories offer children the opportunity to practice language by retelling stories, creating plays based on stories, or comparing different versions of stories.
ii. Storytelling allows children to actively participate in language and plot decisions.
iii. Poetry and rhymes allow children to play with words.
E) Sharing time can be a venue for practicing language, particularly if children describe events or objects rather than just presenting objects to the class.
F) Joint activities with interesting materials provoke more language than individual or familiar activities.
9. Children with Special Needs
A) Full-inclusion (or mainstreaming) classrooms offer opportunities for language
development for all children.
B) A language delay means that children use language that is noticeably immature
for their age, either because of known physical or mental disabilities or because of limited experience.
i. Teachers should refer all children with language delays to specialists for a causal diagnosis.
ii. Adult-child conversation can mediate language delays, especially when the adult is supportive rather than critical.
iii. Teachers must remember that receptive language is often more advanced than productive language.
iv. Teachers should be wary of being overly directive of children with language
delays, even though these children may need more explicit direction about language and its uses than children with normal language development.
C) Language disorders range from delays in talking to problems with productive or
expressive language.
10. Celebrating Diversity
A) Presenting multiple languages through words, stories and songs increases children's awareness or and respect for diversity.
B) A dialect is a cultural (or subcultural) variation on a common language. Teachers
should remember that children's failure to use standard English may demonstrate adherence to a dialect, rather than lack of knowledge or understanding. Dialects should be respected.
C) Many children learn English as a Second Language (ESL). These children may be
placed in bilingual classrooms while others may be "immersed" in regular classrooms. As with children learning English as their first language, ESL students need many opportunities to explore and practice English with supportive adult interaction.
i. Teachers need to respect children's native cultures and language while encourage the development of English skills.
ii. Encouraging ESL students to work cooperatively with English-only students can foster both self-esteem and language skills.
iii. Tabor suggests that ESL children go through stages of learning language:
a) In the nonverbal stage, children communicate through whining, pouting and crying.
b) Telegraphic language develops when children use the same speech by speakers of the native language.
c) The formulaic stage is when children use two word captures (bye bye) to help communicate and interact with their peers.
d) In the last stage, children achieve productive use of the language.