UNIT ONE CHAPTER 1  Studying Human Development I. The nature of human development I Development refers to changes in a person’s long-term growth, feelings, and patterns of thinking. A. Three domains of development Domains refer to the type or form of change. There are three domains, and they interact in many ways with one another. 1. Physical development includes bodily changes, the use of the body (e.g., motor skills, sexuality), and the effects of aging (e.g., eyesight, muscular strength). 2. Cognitive development refers to changes in methods and style of thinking, language ability and use, and strategies for remembering and recalling information. 3. Psychosocial development relates to changes in feelings or emotions, relationships with others, and development of a sense of self. B. One individual’s development: Jodi Bronfenbrenner’s theory on ecological systems provides a framework for understanding the many contexts of development. 1. The microsystem consists of situations in which the individual experiences face-to- face contact with important individuals. 2. The mesosystem is the connections and relationships that exist between two or more microsystems. 3. Settings in which the person does not participate but that still have an influence are called the exosystem. 4. The macrosystem is the overall society, with its overarching institutions, practices, and patterns of belief. II. Why study development? A. Knowledge about development can lead to realistic expectations for children, adolescents, and adults. B. Knowledge about development can aid appropriate responses to a person’s actual behavior. C. Developmental knowledge can increase recognition when departures from the normal are significant. D. Developmental knowledge can enhance understanding of one’s own development. E. Knowledge about development can facilitate advocacy for the needs and rights of people of all ages. III. Past understandings of human development A. Childhood and adolescence as concepts 1. Children were not always considered full-fledged members of society or even genuine humans. Children graduated to adult status early in life and took on major adultlike tasks. 2. Therefore, the period of adolescence was unknown, and teenagers assumed adult roles. Assuming major adultlike tasks was a factor in the early mortality of children. B. Early precursors to developmental study 1. Economic changes and the effects of industrialization made it known that children were working in factories and being abandoned. C. The emergence of modern developmental study 1. Baby biographies were one of the earliest attempts to study development. 2. Gesell developed norms, or standards of normal development, by observing children at precise ages doing specific tasks. 3. Piaget observed behavior that illustrated cognitive skills. IV. Basic issues in developmental study A. Continuity and discontinuity Another issue involves whether human development is a gradual continuous process (continuity) or relatively sudden leaps that lead to new and unprecedented behavior (discontinuity). B. Nature and nurture Theorists have argued about the relative importance of genetics and inborn qualities (nature) and the skills and qualities acquired through learning and experience (nurture). Psychologists agree that most human traits and behaviors result from both nature and nurture, although it is still important to understand the relative contributions of both factors to development. C. Universal and context-specific development This issue explores the extent to which human development is universal or context-specific. Psychologists are recognizing the role that the culture in which a child grows up determines when and how that child develops particular qualities and behaviors. D. Deficit and difference This issue attends to questioning the value of certain developmental changes over other changes. Differences in development are sometimes perceived as desirable and sometimes as deficiencies. V. Methods of studying chidren and adolescents A. The scientific method The scientific method refers to systematic procedures for objective observations and interpretations of observations. 1. Research begins with the formulation of research questions. 2. Each question is stated as a hypothesis—a statement that precisely expresses the research question. 3. After formulating hypotheses, researchers test them by conducting an actual study. 4. Following the study, researchers analyze and report their results. Then they make reasonable interpretations and conclusions about these results. B. Variations in time frame Psychologists can study people of different ages at one point in time. In addition, the same people can be studied at several points in time. 1. A cross-sectional study compares people of different ages at a single point in time. 2. A longitudinal study observes the same subjects periodically over a relatively long period, often years. 3. Both types of studies have advantages and limitations. For instance, cohorts cannot be distinguished in cross-sectional studies. Subjects in longitudinal studies may drop out or move away. 4. Sequential studies combine elements of cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. C. Variations in control: Naturalistic and experimental studies Developmental studies vary in how much they attempt to control the circumstances in which individuals are observed. 1. Naturalistic studies observe behavior as it normally occurs in natural settings. 2. Experimental studies arrange circumstances so that only one or two factors or influences vary at a time. a. In experimental research, groups are arranged so that factors can be manipulated or held constant. A deliberately varied factor is called the independent variable. A factor that varies as a result of the independent variable is called the dependent variable. b. The population refers to the group being studied. When every member of the population has an equal chance of being chosen for the study, the individuals selected form a random sample. If any person does not have an equal chance of being selected, the sample is biased. c. Experimental studies use a number of precautions to ensure that their findings have validity, meaning that they measure or observe what they are intended to measure or observe. d. One way to improve validity is to observe two sample groups, one an experimental group, or treatment group, and the other a control group. The experimental group receives the treatment or intervention related to the purposes of the experiment. The control group experiences conditions that are as similar as possible to the conditions of the experimental group but does not experience the crucial experimental treatment. 3. Most research studies look for correlations among variables. a. A correlation is a systematic relationship. b. When the behaviors or characteristics change in the same direction, the relationship is a positive correlation; when they change in opposite directions, it is a negative correlation. c. The correlation coefficient, which falls between +1.00 and –1.00, summarizes the degree of relationship between two characteristics. D. Variations in sample size Developmental studies vary as to how many people are observed or interviewed. 1. Surveys are large-scale, specific, focused interviews of large numbers of people. Surveys have advantages and limitations. 2. Interviews are face-to-face directed conversations. Because interview studies take time, they usually focus on a smaller number of individuals than surveys do. 3. A case study examines one or a few individuals. In general, case studies try to pull together a wide variety of information about an individual case and then present the information as a unified whole. Case studies emphasize the relationships among specific behaviors, thoughts, and attitudes in the life of the subject. VI. Ethical constraints on studying development Sometimes ethical concerns limit the methods that can be used to study particular questions about development. Generally, researchers face four major ethical issues: A. Confidentiality If researchers collect information that might damage individuals’ reputations or self- esteem, they should take care to protect the identities of the participants. B. Full disclosure of purposes Research subjects are entitled to know the true purpose of any research study in which they participate. Sometimes, however, telling subjects the truth about the study will make them distort their behavior. When this is the case, researchers need to balance dishonesty with making research more scientific. Purposeful deception may be permissible—but only when no other method is possible and when participants are fully informed of the deception and its reasons following the study. C. Respect for individuals’ freedom to participate As much as possible, research studies should avoid pressuring individuals to participate. D. Informed consent With informed consent, each person shows that he or she understands the nature of the research, believes that his or her rights are protected, and feels free to either volunteer or refuse to participate. E. In loco parentis The need to meet all three principles of ethics especially applies to children who must be handled in loco parentis, or "in place of parents." Such cases require that investigators act at all times in the best interests of the children in the same way parents would. CHAPTER 2 Theories of Development Chapter Lecture I.  The nature of developmental theories A. What is a developmental theory? Theories help organize and make sense of information about development. A good theory has several characteristics. 1. There is internal consistency, with the different parts fitting together in a logical way. 2. It provides meaningful explanations of developmental change. 3. The theory is open to scientific evaluation so that it can be revised or discarded. 4. The theory stimulates new thinking and research. 5. It provides guidance to parents and professionals in working with children, adolescents, and adults. B. How developmental theories differ 1. Developmental theories differ in how much influence they attribute to maturation and how much to experience. 2. They differ in their view of developmental change as being continuous or stagelike in nature. 3. They differ in their view of individuals as active or passive participants in their own development. 4. They differ in how broadly they define various factors and contexts in developmental change. II. Psychodynamic developmental theories Psychodynamic theories propose that development is an active process influenced by inborn, biological drives and conscious and unconscious experiences. A. Freudian theory Freud, the creator of psychoanalysis, influenced psychodynamic theories of personality development and the causes and treatment of psychological problems. 1. Freud described a three-part structure of personality. a. The id, which is present at birth, is unconscious. It tries to satisfy a person’s biological needs and desires by motivating behavior that instinctively seeks to maximize pleasure and avoid discomfort without regard for the realities involved. b. The ego is the largely rational, conscious, reality-oriented, and problem-solving part of the personality. It functions according to the reality principle. c. The superego is the moral and ethical part of the personality. It includes the child’s emerging sense of conscience. 2. Freud believed development occurs through id/ego/superego conflicts within a series of psychosexual stages. a. Each stage focuses on a different area of the body. b. Conflicts may result in these stages. 3. Defense mechanisms such as repression and projection protect the ego from conflicts. 4. Unresolved conflicts can lead to fixations. A fixation is a blockage in development. B. Erikson’s psychosocial theory Erikson, who studied with Freud’s daughter, Anna, believed personality development involves a lifelong process through which an individual attempts to achieve a sense of identity by mastering a series of conflicts created by three interrelated developmental forces: the person’s biological and physical strengths and limitations; his or her unique life circumstances and developmental history; and the particular social, cultural, and historical forces at work during the individual’s lifetime. 1. Each of Erikson’s eight stages of development involves a particular psychosocial crisis that individuals must successfully master to achieve an adult identity. a. Trust versus mistrust (birth to one year): The child develops trusting relationships with others. b. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (one to three years): The child must learn control over bodily functions and activities. c. Initiative versus guilt (three to six years): The child tests the limits of self-assertion and purposefulness. d. Industry versus inferiority (six to twelve years): The child experiences the challenge of mastering many new social and intellectual tasks. e. Identity versus role confusion (twelve to nineteen years): Individuals attempt to form an identity and coherent self-concept. f. Intimacy versus isolation (nineteen to twenty-five years): The young adult must develop close and committed relationships with others. g. Generativity versus stagnation (twenty-five to fifty years): During adulthood and midlife, the individual attempts to help future generations. h. Ego integrity versus despair (fifty and older): The older adult reflects back on life and feels assured that it was meaningful or experiences despair for failures or unaccomplished goals. 2. According to Erikson, people never fully resolve any of their psychosocial conflicts. Rather, they achieve more or less favorable ratios of positive to negative outcomes. C. Other psychodynamic approaches Other theories reflect Freud’s belief in the significance of early childhood relationships and both conscious and unconscious inner experiences. An example is object relations theory. 1. Mahler proposed a four-phase model by which children learn to develop a psychological sense of self. 2. Kohut argued that a newborn’s sense of self is initially fragmented and incomplete. 3. Stern described the infant’s process of developing a sense of self in four overlapping, interdependent stages, each of which defines a different area of self-experience and social relatedness. D. Evaluation of developmental issues in psychodynamic approaches E. Applications of psychodynamic developmental theories to everyday life III. Behavioral learning and social cognitive learning developmental theories Learning is generally defined as relatively permanent changes in observable behavior as a result of experience. Learning experiences that occur during the course of a person’s life are the source of developmental change. The behavioral learning theories of Pavlov and Skinner have provided key concepts for understanding how learning experiences influence development and for helping individuals learn new, desirable behaviors and alter or eliminate behaviors that are problematic. A. Pavlov developed the notion of classical conditioning while studying digestion in dogs. B. Skinner pioneered the notion of operant conditioning. 1. Operant conditioning is based on the simple concept of reinforcement. 2. Punishment weakens a response by either adding an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasurable one. 3. Shaping occurs when small changes in behavior are reinforced to bring the behaviors closer to a desired behavior. C. Bandura’s social cognitive theory views developmental change as a process resulting from the observational learning and interactions between the child and the physical and social environment. D. Evaluation of developmental issues in behavioral and social cognitive approaches E. Applications of behavioral and social cognitive learning developmental theories to everyday life IV. Cognitive developmental theories examine the development of children’s thinking and problem solving. A. Piaget’s cognitive theory describes cognition and intelligence. Key principles of Piaget’s theory 1. Piaget believed thinking develops in a series of increasingly complex stages, each incorporating and revising those that precede it. 2. People move from stage to stage through the processes of direct learning, social transmission, and physical maturation. 3. Direct learning occurs when the child experiences changes related to a scheme, which is a pattern of thought and action. 4. Assimilation is the process by which the child interprets experiences on the basis of concepts he or she already knows. 5. Accommodation occurs when the already existing schemes are modified to better fit new ideas or experiences. 6. Adaptation is the result of the interplay of assimilation and accommodation and refers to a deepening and modification of a scheme. B. Neo-Piagetian approaches These approaches to cognitive development are new or revised models of Piaget’s basic approach. 1. Case proposed that cognitive development results from increases in the available capacity of the child’s mental space. 2. Fischer’s theory accepts Piaget’s basic idea of stages, but instead of schemes uses the term skills to describe cognitive structures that apply to particular problem-solving tasks. These skills are more task specific than Piaget’s schemes. C. Information-processing theory Precise, detailed steps involved in mental activities are the focus of information-processing theory. 1. Key principles in information-processing theory a. The sensory register takes in information from the environment. b. Information that is attended to is transferred to short-term memory. c. Information is saved permanently in long-term memory. 2. Developmental changes in information processing a. As children grow older, they experience several cognitive changes that allow them to process information more efficiently and comprehensively. b. Changes take place in control processes, which direct attention toward particular input from the sensory register and guide the response to new information. c. As children grow older, they develop metacognition—the awareness and understanding of how thinking and learning work. This understanding helps children assess task difficulty and plan strategies for approaching a task. d. As children grow older, they also increase their knowledge base. D. Evaluation of developmental issues in cognitive approaches E. Applications of cognitive developmental theories to everyday life V. Contextual developmental theories Contextual approaches view development as a process involving the pattern of reciprocal transactions between the child and the system of physical, social, and cultural developmental contexts in which those interactions occur. A. In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological approach, the context in which the developing individual exists; the person’s cognitive, socioemotional, and motivational capacities; and his or her active participation, are central ingredients for developmental change. Bronfenbrenner describes four ecological settings in which development occurs. B. Vygotsky proposed that the development of cognitive ability is a function of individuals’ social interactions with others more capable than themselves, and he asserts that learning occurs within the zone of proximal development, which is the range between what a person is capable of attaining alone and what she or he can achieve with the assistance of a more capable individual. C. Richard Lerner’s contextual approach emphasizes the dynamic, interactive relationships between individual development and the development of the contexts in which his or her development occurs. D. Glen Elder suggests that education, work, and family create the social trajectories that guide individual development. E. Ethological theory, in the context of human development, focuses on an individual’s innate behavioral and psychological characteristics that constrain the individual’s physical and behavioral development. F. Evaluation of developmental issues in contextual approaches G. Applications of contextual developmental theories to everyday life