Thu Aug 8,11:49 PM ET
By Randy Dotinga
HealthScoutNews Reporter
THURSDAY, Aug. 8 (HealthScoutNews) -- Can your baby learn a foreign language?
It might be easier than you think: New research suggests children as young as 17 months can gain some rudimentary understanding of Russian in as little as two minutes.
The babies, of course, are far from ready to order a meal in Moscow. However, their quickness at noticing patterns suggests humans learn the structure of language at about the same time as they discern the meaning of words, says LouAnn Gerken, an associate professor of linguistics at the University of Arizona.
"It gives us a new way to look at babies," she says. "They're lying there and figuring out these patterns. They're linguists and mathematicians."
In a series of studies, Gerken has examined how infants learn language. As parents know, children can have wildly different levels of comprehension at young ages.
"In some kids, we start to see evidence of word formation sometime around 12 months, and rudimentary sentences at about a year and a half," she says. "But that varies enormously across kids. You can see some kids who don't produce their first word until age 2."
Even if they don't speak words, however, babies appear to understand what their parents say by the end of their first year of life, she says.
Studying language development in infants is a big challenge for Jenny Saffran, an associate professor in the department of psychology at the University of Wisconsin. "They can't tell us. We can't ask an 8-month-old or a 14-month-old, 'How did you figure out that dog is a word, or what does cup mean, or what's the past tense of is.'"
About 20 babies take part in each of Gerken's studies, which feature masculine and feminine Russian words. Like Spanish and French, Russian divides some words into genders. Russian also adds special endings to nouns to show where they fit in a sentence in relation to the verb, Gerken explains. For example, a case ending could indicate that a word is the object or subject of a sentence.
"In English, we do that with word order. Russian allows you to have a freer word order, but the price you pay is that you have to mark who did what to whom," she says.
In the studies, the babies listen to Russian words for about two minutes while sitting on a parent's lap in a soundproof room. "We give them six masculine words and six feminine words with each of two case endings on the case words," Gerken says.
Then the babies are tested by being told correct and incorrect forms of the words. If they respond with interest to the words, this suggests that they have found something "new" that doesn't jibe with what they just learned, Gerken says.
Researchers assume the babies are more stimulated by words that don't follow patterns they were just exposed to.
"What we find was that even though they've only had these two minutes of exposure, they appear to be able to tell the difference between the good and bad combinations," she says. "They've figured out the system, they know they've heard the word with this other combination ending, and they extrapolate that it's OK."
Gerken's work is not published, but she plans to submit it for publication in a linguistics journal.
How do adults do on the same test? It takes them longer to figure out the system, perhaps because they make it too complicated, Gerken says. "One of the reasons we think babies might have a leg up on adults is that babies get this exposure before they try to figure out what the words mean."
From birth to 1 month, a child only makes very few sounds. These might include gurgling sounds, fussing noises and sounds that seem like the child is satisfied. Mainly though, the child can only cry to gain attention when they need attention. From 1 to 2 months the child begins to laugh and coo. Their cognitive abilities have helped them to recognize pleasure and satisfaction. By 6 to 7 months vowels are mixed with consonants and the child starts toying with these. Babbling appears by 6-12 months. It appears that at this stage they are learning from some of the sounds they are hearing. Gestures are also an important part to a child’s language skills. These begin to develop around 9th to the 10th months. This is a way for them to communicate while they have little speaking abilities. It appears that at this stage they also begin to understand words. From 9 to 13 months of age, infants start to speak words, mixed with babbling, of course. These words do not always sound like words that we understand, but the child knows exactly what it means. Within 6 months from this point, they may learn only 30 words. Too, they may put words with gestures to get their point across. At their 16th to 24th month this changes. Its like they have figured out that animate things have names. They begin to learn words at a rapid pace. During this time they also begin to put sentences together. By 16 months they may have learned 50 words and by 24 months they have learned on average 320 words. At this point they are analyzing the words they have learned to various situations and cognitively attaching them to these. By 30 months old their vocabulary is about 600 words. From 18 to 27 months of life outside the womb, children start speaking what is called Stage I grammar; these are simple sentences. This is short 2 or 3 word sentences that are made up of very few prepositions, auxiliary verbs and similar grammatical usages. “They focus on certain types of words and put them together in particular orders. They also manage to convey a variety of different meanings with their simple sentences” (pg. 226). From 27 to 36 months, the child begins to use what is called Stage II grammar; these are more complex sentences. This is a time when the child, who knows quite a few words, can start understanding how to form sentences. They begin using “plurals, past tenses, auxiliary verbs, and prepositions” (pg. 227).
Along with some of the things already mentioned, things that influence children to want to communicate better is the interaction that they crave. Their minds are sponges waiting to soak up all they can about this new world they are in. They have a need for knowledge and understanding of what life is about. They learn by imitation and reinforcements and other theories of explanation that linguists have construed. So the reasons that children want to use language is to communicate and to have a measure of independence so they can have a say as to what they do.
According to the NNCC (National Network for Child Care) these are the milestones to language development for the first three years:
“Age 3 months
Make cooing, gurgling sounds, smile when smiled at, communicate hunger, fear, discomfort (through crying or facial expression), usually quiet down at the sound of a soothing voice or when held, anticipate being lifted, react to “peek-a-boo” games.
Age 6 months
Babble, making almost singsong sounds, know familiar faces, laugh and squeal with delight, scream if annoyed, smile at herself in a mirror.
Age 12 months
Babble, but it sometimes “sounds like” talking, say his first word, recognize family members’ names, try to “talk” with you, respond to another's distress by showing distress or crying, show affection to familiar adults, show mild to severe anxiety at separation from parent, show apprehension about strangers, raise her arms when she wants to be picked up, understand simple commands.
Age 18 months
Say 8-10 words you can understand, look at a person who is talking to him, ask specifically for her mother or father, use “hi,” “bye,” and “please,” with reminders, protest when frustrated, ask for something by pointing or by using one word, direct another's attention to an object or action, become anxious when separated from parent(s), seek attention, bring toys to share with parent, act out a familiar activity in play (as in pretending to take a bath), play alone on the floor with toys, compete with other children for toys, recognize herself in the mirror or in pictures, seem selfish at times.
Age 2years old
Have a vocabulary of several hundred words, use 2-3 word sentences, say names of toys, ask for information about an object (asks, “Shoe?” while pointing to shoe box), hum or try to sing, listen to short rhymes, like to imitate parents, sometimes get angry and have temper tantrums, act shy around strangers, comfort a distressed friend or parent, take turns in play with other children, treat a doll or stuffed animal as though it were alive, apply pretend action to others (as in pretending to feed a doll), show awareness of parental approval or disapproval for her actions, refer to self by name and use “me” and “mine”, verbalize his desires and feelings (“I want cookie”), laugh at silly labeling of objects and events (as in calling a nose an ear), enjoy looking at one book over and over, point to eyes, ears, or nose when you ask.
Age 3 years old
Use 3-5 word sentences, ask short questions, use plurals (“dogs,” “cars,” “hats”), name at least 10 familiar objects, repeat simple rhymes, name at least one color correctly, imitate housework or help with simple tasks, ask to use the toilet almost every time, enjoy being read to, talk about feelings and mental states (e.g., remembering), demonstrate some shame when caught in a wrongdoing, try to make others laugh, play spontaneously with two or three children in a group, assign roles in pretend social play ("You be mommy;” “I be daddy”), know her first and last name, understand “I,” “you,” “he,” and “she”, believe everything centers around him (“if I hide my eyes, no one will see me”), answer whether she is a boy or girl” ( NNCC, 1998).
Reference
National Network for Child Care (1998). Available online at:
http://www.nncc.org/Child.Dev/child.dev.page.html [December 19, 1998].
2. Identify three major aspects of child rearing that can affect development of competence.
1. Permissive parental style; Because of the way these children are raised, they show
irresponsibility and are usually “immature in their behavior with peers and in school”. They are also more aggressive with their peers and “do slightly less well in school” (pg. 374). They have a hard time taking responsibility and grow up dependent on others.
2. Authoritarian parental style; much is demanded from these children while low
levels of warmth and family closeness is apparent and may show themselves to be highly aggressive due to the environment they have been subjected to. Too, they may also show indications of being “out of control” (pg. 374). Other children raised in this atmosphere appear subdued. Since their parents have controlled their lives, their self-esteem is very low. These children too, do less well in school. They appear to be less skilled with their peers.
3. Neglecting parental style; Often parents have neglected their children, leaving
them “more impulsive and antisocial and much less achievement oriented in school.” Too, they have a hard time getting close with others for quite some time (pg. 375).
4. Explain the role of gesturing in cognitive development.
Gesturing is an important start for the communication process in children. At about 9 to 10 months a baby’s first real gesturing/communication takes place. This is with a collage of sounds and motions. This is one of the few ways they can get their point across. Words put with gestures and body language or what linguists call holophrases, are common at age 12 – 18 months.
5. Name five characteristics of early speech.
I’m not really sure what is meant by this question, but I think it might mean:
Cooing vowel sounds – signals of pleasure that is given with a variation of pitch and tones. This usually happens around 1 or 2 months.
Babbling – consonant sounds along with vowel sounds where they are repeated over and over. One researcher, Elizabeth Bates referred to this as “learning the tune before the words” (pg. 220). During this time they are usually using only two sounds in their babbling. At the onset they babble all kinds of sounds. It seems as though they are not listening to what adults are saying. They seem to enjoy listening to themselves. As they mature some, their sounds are more distinct like the above mentioned. Babbling usually happens from 6 to 12 months.
Receptive language – when the child starts to understand what words mean. This usually happens around 9 or 10 months.
Expressive language – they start expressing themselves with single words coupled with gestures around 9 to 13 months.
Words in sentences – begins around 18 to 24 months. An explosion of new words learned start to appear. The more the child is exposed to a social environment, the more words they will pick up.
6. Explain the role of Dr. Benjamin Spock in child rearing.
Though the textbook didn’t have much to say concerning Dr. Spock it has been noted that he was a forerunner in child development and care. Many of his theories were carried out in the 60’s with disastrous results, as some have stated. Children that were raised according to his theories, as they stated, rebelled against society.
Previous generations had been instructed that children must sleep and eat on a rigid schedule, that they were not to be kissed, rocked or fondled lest they grow up soft in a harsh world and other such hard-nosed gems. This attitude presumed that all babies were exactly alike in their needs and temperaments.
Dr. Spock thought this to be nonsense. He didn't advocate zero discipline, but rather measured discipline. He felt that each baby has its own pattern, and there is no one schedule to fit all. He instructed to feed the baby when it is hungry and not by the clock. He stated that babies have a reason when they cry, so try to provide the remedy; change its diaper, give it food or provide it comfort, rock them, cuddle them, hug them. He merely stated that it was possible to raise a child without hitting it, and that children are to be respected as fellow human beings. The lesson taught otherwise is that people do not matter if they are inferior in size, strength or might to you. Part of the problem with this world is that people learn a very painful lesson in childhood, namely that whoever wields the stick makes the rules and right or wrong, good or bad, where there is a whip there is a way.
He stated that children should be respected and parenting should be fun, and parents across the nation took him seriously. Most of all, he felt very strongly that no one knows your child as well as you do. Trust your own judgment while raising them.
7. Explain parents’ socioeconomic level as a factor in child development competence.
Parents socioeconomic level has much to do with the rearing of children and how
they develop. To begin with, children brought up in “poverty level” families have a more likely chance of being born with a disability than other families. This is because they may not be able to afford prenatal care. Too, social supports are few and so children growing up under these conditions may have poor, if any, playmates. This environment often is very stressful, not only for the parents, but also for the children. According to researchers, it has been found that parents “talk to them less, provide fewer age-appropriate toys, spend less time with them in intellectually stimulating activities, explain things less often and less fully, are less warm, and are stricter and more physical in their discipline” (pg. 417). A lot too, depends on the parents level of education. It might not matter so much what their economic level is because parents with higher levels of education, even though they might live in the poverty level have been found to care better for their children. When a child is brought up under such conditions, they may have less educational advantages. Schools within the inner city may not be providing a proper environment, not that it is the schools’ fault. Children witness muggings, rape, shootings, stabbings and a variety of other crimes that may have an affect on them psychologically. These stresses are not a help for child development competence.
8. Discuss the importance of reading to preschoolers.
One important reason for reading to toddlers is because it helps them develop a vocabulary faster. Language growth is vital at a young age. Parents are encouraged to read to their children starting even before they can talk. This will help them also develop a greater phonetic awareness, thus have an easier time later on while in school. They will learn not only by imitation but also by repetition and visual sight of the spelling, while the parent is reading to them. Too, it draws them closer to the parents, which will benefit them later on in life. A close bond and attachment with a parent will help the child to feel needed and wanted, thus raising its level of self-esteem.
9. Discuss the development of self-regulation.
It is around the age of 7 or 8 that a child first begins to realize its own self-worth. This is evidently the time when they themselves begin to see that they themselves have to answer for the things they do. It is also around this time that children are starting school and are able to interact with others socially. They use their newly acquired skills to look beyond different situations or even behind them to see what the consequences might be. This is called inductive logic. They begin to realize that other too can read him as he reads them. He can now say that he ‘trusts’ others, or not. This is also a time that will affect his future, for he will interact with others and demands will be placed on him, both cognitive and interactively. It appears that the larger the child is physically, the more interactions it receives and develops cognitively faster because of these interactions due to peer recognition. Researchers are looking further into these facts to find out why.
“In addition to examining children’s understanding of rules about games, Piaget interviewed children regarding acts such as stealing and lying. When asked what a lie is, younger children consistently answered that they are “naughty words”. When asked why they should not lie, younger children could rarely explain beyond the forbidden nature of the act: “because it is a naughty word”. However, older children were able to explain “because it isn't right”, and “it wasn’t true”. Even older children indicated an awareness of intention as relevant to the meaning of an act: “A lie is when you deceive someone else. To make a mistake is when you make a mistake”. From his observations, Piaget concluded that children begin in a “heteronomous” stage of moral reasoning, characterized by a strict adherence to rules and duties, and obedience to authority” (Scott Foresman, 1965).
Reference
Scott Foresman. Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. The Free Press: New York.
10. Describe the influence on personality development of gender, birth order and temperament.
According to Hartup, & van Lieshout, temperament is a set of response patterns that later develop into personality. Ahadi & Rothbart said it is “a matrix from which later child and adult personality develops” (pg. 251). So according to the text, temperament is the pattern of what will later develop into what we call the person’s personality. This is strengthened by the individuals life experiences.
Gender also plays a role on the development of the child’s personality. There are three steps that a child goes through, to determine and recognize their gender concept. This, in turn, has an influence on their personality because they are now labeled as a certain gender and are expected to fulfill expectancies. The 3 steps are gender identity – “the child’s ability to label his own sex correctly”, gender stability – “the understanding that you stay the same gender throughout life”, and gender consistency – the ability to recognize that they “stay the same gender even though they may appear to change by wearing different cloths or having different hair lengths” (pg. 292-3). Once a child leans this, they then become motivated to behave and learn the traits of that sex; this in turn affects their personality.
Birth order also affects a child’s personality development. For one thing, parents tend to favor one child over the others, which can affect how each child in that family views their standing within that structure. This can be a detriment to some children while others are less affected. The firstborn are usually a favored child until other children come along, then, less attention is given to them, while the youngest is given the most attention. Also, a child who is born while the parents are older, is likely to be treated less restrictively than if he was born earlier in the parents life. This will affect the personality of the child as well. These are only a few examples of how a child’s personality can be affected by these different influences.
11. How does a parent positively deal with negativism in a toddler?
According to the text (pg. 468), “mothers who had been less negative” have had better results with their
children as they got older. If they can deal with stress better, it will better help them to deal with the negativity of dealing with their own children. Stress management classes could also help. Also, pharmacological therapy could reduce the amount of stress the mother experiences. Drugs like Prozac and Zoloft could help balance out their hormonal system. Psychotherapy is another way they (parents) could deal with the negativism of their children, for they themselves may have experienced the same negativism in their own childhood. Improving communication skills will also be of great benefit to both child and parent.
12. How does a mother’s depression affect the child?
Children need a secure environment to feel secure them selves. When its mother is depressed she may give little attention to the child, thus resulting in insecurity for the child. At these times of less interaction, the child will instinctively pick up on this and feel that they are being left out or even unloved. Young children have no concept of time and will feel the insecurity of being left alone more than usual. Mothers experiencing depression will often feel; why bother? This is a dangerous situation for any child to be in. Downey & Coyne, 1990, found “that children growing up with depressed parents are much more likely than those growing up with nondepressed parents to develop depression themselves”.
13. Identify common sleep problems for children ages; 3-6.
Sleepwalking - often linked to a stressful event that immediately preceded the sleepwalking occurrence. Night terrors - cause a child who appears to be awake but is not, to scream uncontrollably for about two minutes. A child will have no memory of a night terror. Nightmares - often triggered by scary TV shows and movies and children generally remember them. Adult expectations for children's sleep schedules vary greatly from culture to culture. There is no right or wrong way. What some may call a sleep problem may just be due to the child’s own circadian rhythms.
14. What are appropriate guidelines for immunizations?
Recommended Immunization Schedule (As set forth by the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, The American Academy of Pediatrics, and the American Academy of Family Physicians. January 1996.)
Newborn - Hepatitis B-1
2 months - Hepatitis B-2, DPT (diphtheria, pertussis, tetanus), OPV (oral polio virus), Hib (hemophilus influenza type B)
4 months - DPT, OPV, Hib
6 months - Hepatitis B-3, DPT, Hib
15 months - MMR (Measles, Mumps, Rubella), Hib, VZV (chickenpox)
18 months - DPT and OPV
4-6 years - DT P or DTaP (diphtheria tetanus), MMR*, and OPV
11-12 years - Hepatitis B-3, T(d), MMR*, VZV (age 11-12)
Every 10 years Immunization - T(d) (adult tetanus, diptheria)
*A second dose of the MMR vaccine is needed at 4-6 years or 11-12 years depending on state school immunization requirements.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "General Recommendations on
Immunization." Atlanta, Georgia: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
1/28/94, 43 (RR-1). Available online at: http://www.nncc.org/Health/immuniz.safeguard.html. [December 20, 1998].
15. Discuss the assessment of intelligence in early childhood.
Bayley Scales of Infant Development (infant IQ test) measure “primarily sensory and motor skills. Other
tests like the Denver Developmental Screening Test help to identify serious developmental problems and delays. These early tests are not the same as the common childhood or adult IQ tests and are not as useful as many professionals had hoped.
16. What are some positive benefits of day-care?
Children in day-care seem to be able to socialize better with other children seeing
that they have been exposed to others at an early age. This makes them more popular too. They are better liked by other children and will learn to share their toys, thus producing better peer-play skills than children that are primarily raised at home. Too, it depends on what kind of facility the child is placed in. day-care centers help children to develop their cognitive skills by giving them meaningful things to occupy their minds. Thus, they are better equipped to handle elementary school once they reach that age. Research has found that the higher the day-care cognitive performance, the better they are at cognitive performance during elementary school. At home care, on the other hand, which is usually a less stimulating environment, does not usually offer this kind of support.
17. Describe the principle features of the Montessori method.
Dr. Maria Montessori, Italy's first woman physician, developed educational materials and methods based on her belief that children learn best by doing, not by passively accepting other people's ideas and pre-existing knowledge. This idea of learning promotes the active personal pursuit of many different experiences: physical, social, emotional, cognitive. Montessori believed that learning should occur in multi-age classrooms where children at various stages of development learn from and with each other. Her approach was designed to fit each child instead of making each child fit the program. She felt, and I agree, that children learn more by touching, seeing, smelling, tasting, and exploring than by just listening. Teacher training prepares them to create dynamic, interactive learning environments that encourage each child to reason, cooperate, collaborate, negotiate, and to understand. Children will learn naturally if placed in an environment consisting of learning games suited to the child's abilities and interests. Relying on self-motivation and auto-education, the teacher intervenes only when a child needs help. The Montessori approach usually means no grades and an individualized curriculum that emphasizes hands-on learning.
18. Define egocentrism.
According to Webster, this noun means being self-centered; viewing everything in relation to oneself. This appears to be part of a social disorder. They may be so narcissistic that it is hard for them to put themselves in someone else’s position. That makes them appear to be self-centered. When confronted, they are perplexed that others view them this way. These children often see the world as a stage that has been erected to meet their own needs or for their own amusement. If such a child is asked a question such as “Why is the sky blue?” he might give an answer like: “because blue is my favorite color.”
19. Explain how fearfulness, aggression and altruism develop.
According to the Dictionary of Psychology, altruism is “the disposition to act in behalf of others for
unselfish reasons.” This can develop by parental training and example. Siblings can be taught to share toys and other items, thus helping the child to see the need for an altruistic personality. They see the benefits of it and will fit in better later on in life. Aggression develops when there is a lack of communication skills. Before cultural rules have been established and developed, young ones will take out their frustrations in the only way they understand and know how, by aggression. Boys display aggression differently than girls and show more aggression than girls do at every age, as once thought: “Higher rates in physical aggression in males have been observed in every human society” (pg. 331). Fearfulness develops when insecurity and low self-esteem is present. Also when there is a lack of education and communication fear will develop. The child does not understand or can communicate what makes them afraid, then fear is increased. There are different kinds of fear that can develop also. Fear of displeasing a parent or guardian is a wholesome fear, for it will help them to develop respect for other and help them cope later on in life. There is also a fear of the unknown, which can literally cause a child to invert their thoughts and feelings and lead to emotional problems later on in life.
20. Compare the three styles of parenting.
The three styles of parenting according to Diana Baumrind are permissive, authoritarian, and authoritative. The permissive style and the authoritarian styles are the least productive styles of parenting. This is due to the way that corrective discipline is carried out. Either it is too lenient or too harsh. Either way the child grows up feeling insecure about itself and less loved by the parent, feeling that their parents either don’t care about what they do or think they are not mature enough to handle or cope with life. While the authoritarian method demands a measure of high control over the child, the authoritative method gives them leeway, to make their own decisions while respecting the parents feelings on that particular matter. This type of parenting, the authoritative method, helps to build the child’s self-esteem. They become more independent of their parents as they mature and at the same time “show more altruistic behavior” (pg. 374). Too, they seem to do better in school due to their self-confident, self-respecting reflection of themselves.
21. Explain the difference between internal and external rewards.
An external reward is a reward of positive reinforcement that a child receives for accomplishing a good
deed. This reward is tangible, something they can visibly see such as a new toy, clothes or the like. An internal reward works in much the same way, only it is intangible. These are given by use of praises, commendations and the like. Sometimes an internal reward works much better with children for it reinforces in them how much they are loved and needed. It builds up their self-confidence and esteem.
22. Define the identification theory in regard to gender.
In society, the roles of the genders are constantly changing, therefore making this
a difficult question to answer. In each culture there are different expectations for each gender. So, according to which part of the world the child is born in, makes all the difference in the world! Each child needs to learn what is expected of them, this involves their “behaviors, attitudes, rights, duties, and obligations” (pg. 292). Too, they must learn what it cognitively means to be a boy or girl. Then they will understand what clothing to wear as well as their hair style and possibly length, although that is a cultural decision anymore. This all should take place for the child to grow up with a healthy outlook on life, knowing that they fit in and are accepted by society.
23. Discuss the relationship between growth and development and nutrition.
A child’s diet affects their growth and development over this crucial period of time. Their rate of physical development can be determined by what they eat. “Poorly nourished children grow more slowly and then don’t end up as large” (Malina, 1982: pg. 124). Even if a child’s source of nourishment improves they usually don’t have the physical characteristics that they would if they had properly been nourished during this critical time of their life. It has been noted that these (undernourished) children are less active and stay to themselves more. Their interactions tend to be limited with this regard.
24. Identify trends in obesity, naming four possible causes, and describe an effective treatment.
The common trend for a child to be labeled as obese is typically 20 percent over the weight they should be at this period of their life. Overeating, low levels of activity, genetic propensity, and socioeconomic status of their parents usually are the underling causes of obesity. An effective treatment is to watch caloric and carbohydrate intake and encourage aerobic and strenuous exercises in order to burn built up fat tissue.
25. Describe the incidence and cause of stuttering.
Stuttering is an involuntary disorder in the normal flow of speech. About one in twenty preschool children stutter at some point. There is a greater incidence in boys than in girls. The first signs of stuttering usually occur between two and five years of age, but can occur in school-age children. Most of these children never even realize that they are talking incorrectly, and they grow out of it without any special help. This period of speech development is accepted by most authorities as normal. Only if the pattern persists over a period of months and interferes with communication skills is it considered actual stuttering. The causes of stuttering are unknown. Explanations for it include an inherited disorder theory, a neurological theory, and a learned-behavior theory. The inherited disorder theory suggests that children inherit the disorder from one or both parents who stuttered as children. The neurological theory proposes failure of the brain to send proper messages to the muscles that move the mouth and palate. The learned-behavior theory suggests that parents are unable or unwilling to accept the fact that their child exhibits language skills that are not normal in their preschool children. Thus, without attention given to the child, it encourages continuation of the behavior. By the time the speech is viewed as an impediment by the child, it is too ingrained to change.
26. Why are school children less healthy in the 1990’s than in the 1970’s?
There may be a multitude of reasons for this, some of which are not mentioned in this text. Much stress is placed upon our young ones due to current values taught within every aspect of social culture. This stress in itself puts high levels of health vulnerability than do kids of the 70’s. Our environment is much more polluted than it was back in the 70’s also. This must greatly constitute toward the health of our young ones. Also, kids today feel it is ‘cool’ to live their lives taking risks. Thus unhealthy attitudes creep into their values and result in abuse of drugs and alcohol and the like. They are much concerned how others view them so they may eat unhealthily. Dieting and even eating disorders have become very common among this generation of youth in the 90’s. Much of these are caused by what the media portrays as ‘cool.’
27. Discuss the role of morality in child development.
Though there are different theories on moral development, I feel Lawrence Kohlberg’s theories say it best.
According to Kohlberg, there are 3 levels of morality among children with 3 stages within each level. Level one
involves what he termed as preconventional morality. This usually is what we might see among elementary
school children. This is based upon what superiors think, mainly their parents. These are external values to him.
He judges how morally right or wrong something is based on how he was judged. The first stage of this level is
punishment and obedience orientation, that is, he bases what he does on how other view them because others
are “bigger and stronger” (pg. 348). Stage 2 involves individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange. Its
usually called conventional morality and can be seen among adolescence on through to adult life. If it is
something that he likes and brings him pleasure than it must be good and vise-versa. “Do things that are
rewarded and avoid things that are punished” (pg. 348). The next level is called conventional morality. This is
based on what his peers view as the norm. the first level of stage 2 refers to mutual, interpersonal expectations,
relationships, and interpersonal conformity. As the text states it is also referred to as the “good boy/nice girl
stage”. This is when they feel that they should behave well because that’s what others expect of them. “They
value trust, loyalty, respect, gratitude, and maintenance of mutual relationships” (pg. 349). Also during this
stage, it is a time when they don’t do things on purpose. They want others to see them as OK people. The 2nd
stage of this level is described as social system and conscience. As implied, they now turn to what large
organizations think of their actions. What large social groups would like them to act like. This would include
respect for secular authorities and a need for rules to keep order, which rules are not questioned. Level 3 is
called principled morality or postconventional morality. This level, sad to say, is rarely seen in adults even
today. This is where several changes take place as the text mentions. The changes are seen in that he now has a
different view on life. His choices are what he, himself makes based on what he values. The 1st stage of this
level is called social contact. Values such as physical laws are viewed as helpful necessities and are deemed as
fair. Also other values are just as important as are peoples right to life and liberty. The second stage in this
level is referred as universal ethical principles. The text explained this nicely in an illustration of Mother Teresa
and how she cared for people, no matter of their background. She had a respect for all people. We all should
have qualities like she had and this world would be a better place to live.
28. Give two examples of Piaget’s stages of moral reasoning.
The text did not discuss Piaget’s stages of moral reasoning, although it did state that Kohlberg’s work
was very similar and that he built his theory on Piaget’s of constraint and cooperation. One point of reasoning is based on punishment and obedience. The child decides what is right or wrong based on whether he is punished or not. If he is punished it was wrong and vise-versa. The child is obedient to the adult “because they are bigger and stronger.”
Another point of Kohlberg’s reasoning is based on the ‘individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange.’ This is similar to the former but is based more on the idea that if something feels good it must be good. There is also a feeling of concern for others at this stage. An exchange of deeds accompanies this stage.
Kohlberg gives us 3 levels of moral reasoning which include 6 stages with each level having 2 stages each. The moral levels are 1) pre-conventional level, 2) conventional level and 3) post-conventional level.
“According to Piaget, all development emerges from action; that is to say, individuals construct and reconstruct their knowledge of the world as a result of interactions with the environment. Based on his observations of children’s application of rules when playing, Piaget determined that morality, too, can be considered a developmental process.
The second major contributor to heteronomous moral thinking in young children, is their relative social relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between adults and children, power is handed down from above. The relative powerlessness of young children, coupled with childhood egocentrism feeds into a heteronomous moral orientation” (Scott Foresman, 1965).
Reference
Scott Foresman. Piaget, J. (1965). The moral judgment of the child. The Free Press: New York.
29. Name five ways to teach children thinking skills.
1) Persistence: “If at first you don't succeed, try, try again.” Make it fun and OK to try again. Play Clue or read ‘Choose Your Own Adventure’ or ‘Solve-It-Yourself’ mystery books. Do experiments or plant a little garden for fun.
2) Decreasing impulsivity: Build models or work puzzles, word searches, and crossword puzzles. Make you own mazes. Play video games requiring thinking. Look for experiences that demonstrate “haste makes waste.”
3) Listening to others: Play charades or telephone. Analyze characters' feelings in comic strips, television programs, or stories. Model active and empathetic listening with your child.
4) Flexibility in thinking: Try group problem solving and teams tasks. Compare notes on how you do routine tasks like tying bows, mowing the lawn, drying dishes, or cleaning your room. Discuss how you do fun things like playing a video game, shooting a basket, or catching a pop fly. Try your children's way of doing a task and encourage them to try yours.
5) Awareness of our own thinking: Play checkers, chess, or some other strategy game and describe to an observer why you make each of your own moves. Have your opponent do the same. Challenge children to give a step-by-step explanation of how they might make something, then guess what the outcome will be.
30. Name three ways parents help children achieve in school.
1) Be a model - The most important thing you can do as a parent is to display the same characteristics that
you want your child to exhibit. Children should see that efforts and outcome are related. Children should observe your creativity and uniformity, feel your discouragement and elation, and view both the internal and external rewards that result from your effort. The sharing of personal feelings about achievement should be geared to their emotional and intellectual levels. Elaborate explanations about the business world are not necessary. Your behavior and attitude are what is important.
2) Provide a realistic view of achievement - Children respond best when a realistic and positive view of
achievement is presented. Children must understand the amount of work that is involved in success. Work is boring at times, but feelings of accomplishment at the end of a project far outweigh the disappointment if the work is not done.
3) Provide limits - You are in charge of your children. While they may have excellent verbal and debating skills, children should not be given complete control over their lives, particularly concerning behavior. Regarding day to day discipline matters, the parent’s word should be final and not up for negotiation or debate. This fruitless interaction leads to increasing conflicts and ensures heightening rebelliousness. Letting children decide about important matters provides power without the required level of wisdom. This is of particular importance when children are young.
30. Name two ways of recognizing and encouraging talent in children.
(I’m not sure what you mean by the word ‘talent’, hopefully you mean ‘gifted’.) One way to recognize if a
child is gifted is by determining what their skills are at an early age. ‘Gifted children’ are able to comprehend more than a normal child would at an earlier age. Another way to recognize a gifted child would be to have their IQ tested to see where they stand. To encourage their talents it might be wise to enroll them in enrichment classes that will proliferate such talent. Too there are special schools that deal with gifted children and that will work with them to increase their capabilities. Too, a parent could help their gifted child by being aware of their social contacts and maneuvering situations that will propagate further cognitive functioning. With a small amount of help and guidance, the majority of ordinary parents are capable of doing a great deal to help make possible the fact that their children can be achievers. Emphasis should be made to train teachers at kindergarten and elementary levels and also encourage communication with their students’ parents (e.g. teacher-parent associations) on ways to enhance intellectual development.
31. Identify methods of promoting resilience in children in order to cope with stress.
“Studies of resilient and vulnerable children (Easterbrooks, et al.) suggest that certain characteristics or
circumstances may help protect some children from the detrimental effects of repeated stresses and upheavals, including the following:
a) High IQ in the child
b) Competent adult parenting, such as an authoritative style
c) Effective schools
d) A secure attachment of the child to the parent” (pg. 419).
We can see how these circumstances can benefit children to cope better with stress for a high IQ show that they will be better equipped to deal with life later on having the capacity for a better education. Too, having social supports, parents who care, help them to deal with injustices and circumstances in life, making a role model for them to follow. Effective schools with competent teachers will also benefit youngsters to cope with stress. Here they will be taught effective skills of how to deal with stresses of everyday life. And having a secure attachment with a parent is a sure way to help a child cope with stress. It gives them a measure of security and self-esteem to know they can have someone there for them at any time. All these things and others will enable a child to better cope with stress.
32. Define the maltreatment of children.
From the US Bureau of Census, the statistics are astounding. They stated that “roughly 1 million children in
the United States suffer from neglect or from physical or psychological abuse” (pg. 309). The average age reported of this abuse is age 7. There are several types of maltreatment of children, though not mentioned in the text which include sexual abuse, neglect, sibling abuse, ritualistic abuse and physical abuse as I will mentioned below. As explained in the book Family Violence: Legal, Medical, and Social Perspectives by Harvey Wallace, physical child abuse is defined as “the act is intentional or willful, and the act resulted in a physical injury” (pg. 29). This is one of the most common of the different kinds of child maltreatment. This abuse originates from early in life where either the baby or the parents lack the skills to bond effectively. The baby may lack this ability due to some physical or mental handicap it is born with. Most of these early problems originate with the parent’s lack of skills. This may be due to an intergenerational transmission of violence. This is where the parents are unable to break the circle of abuse due to their lack of social skills, living with high stress or because they themselves have no active social supports. This seems to be the case especially when the child has one parent that is an alcoholic, when they live in large families and when the living conditions are crowded. Depression also affects why a parent might abuse a child. This is because it affects the nurturing skills needed for the strong attachment in early life and can affect the baby equally.
33. Discuss the development of a positive self-esteem.
Susan Harter in 1990 researched the development of self esteem in children and came to several
conclusions. She states that “a child’s level of self-esteem is a product of two internal assessments or judgments: the amount of discrepancy between what the child desires and what the child thinks he has achieved. The second influence is the overall sense of support the child feels from the important people around her, particularly parents and peers” (pg. 288-289). When the discrepancy is low, the self-esteem is usually high and vise-versa. A child’s own direct experience with their successes and failures help decide whether they will develop a positive self-esteem. This is affected by their peers and parents views of them and also the labels and judgments that are placed on them.
34. Explain the sequence of early development of the self-concept.
The early development of self-concept is divided “into two main steps or tasks” as Michael Lewis
states(1990;1991; Lewis and Brooks – Gunn, 1979, pg. 279).
1. Subjective self – this is the definition of Lewis’ argument of a child’s first task in realizing that they are separate from others and that “this separate self endures over time and space.” This happens, according to Lewis, within the first 2 or 3 months of life, when the child distinguishes that he is a separate entity. At 9-12 months that distinction is fully realized.
2. Objective self – this is Lewis’ second step or task and starts when the child realizes more his separateness from others. He starts to realize himself as a person, his separate qualities; these being divided between 2 sub-periods: “the ‘concrete categorical self,’ an early period in which the toddler or preschooler defines himself according to concrete, physical categories; and an “abstract categorical self,” which emerges slowly over the years of childhood and adolescence, as the child gradually defines herself using more and more abstract categories,’ self recognition, emotional expression, and self definitions.”
36. Explain trends in the abuse of alcohol, drugs and tobacco. What do abusers have in common?
New data on drug use in the US suggests that it has been declining over the past several decades,
whereas alcohol use and tobacco users have increased. Based on data from the US Bureau of Census, use of cocaine dropped from 3.6 to 1.7%. In 1992 it was noted that 65.6% tried alcohol and 21% are regular heavy drinkers. In 1994 these heavy drinkers consumed approximately 5 or more drinks within the month. According to statistics, in 1994, 3 million already smoke, are addicted and will not be able to quit.
These abusers have peer pressure in common; their friend, the advertisements they watch, and examples at home set their roles to follow thereby convincing them that they need to abuse these drugs in order to “fit in.”
