The Arawak, the original inhabitants of the island Haiti shares with the Dominican Republic, called the island Ayti, meaning “land of mountains.” When he arrived in 1492, Christopher Columbus named the island La Isla Española (Spanish for “The Spanish Island”) in honor of his Spanish sponsors. The name later evolved into the modern name Hispaniola. After an early settlement near Cap-Haïtien was destroyed by Native Americans, the Spanish settled the eastern half of the island and left the west unsettled. French pirates operating from the island of Tortue hunted wild boar and other animals in Haiti to sell as food to passing ships. By 1697, when Spain formally ceded the western one-third of Hispaniola—the portion that later became Haiti—to France, the French had established a flourishing slave-plantation system throughout the colony. At the end of the next century, Saint-Domingue (the French colonial term for Haiti) was the world's richest colony. The population at that time totaled more than 450,000 slaves, more than 25,000 free mulattoes, and about 30,000 French planters.About 800 Haitian volunteers fought in the American Revolution (1775-1783) under French general Marquis de Lafayette and thereby gained some military experience. The French Revolution, which began in 1789, inspired the Haitian Slave Revolt of 1791. This rebellion was led by Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Henri Christophe, Alexandre Sabès Pétion, and Jean-Pierre Boyer. By 1794 forces under Toussaint Louverture (today known as “the Precursor”) had freed the colony's slave population and rid it of its French and British presence. By 1801 Toussaint Louverture ruled the entire colony. Although Toussaint Louverture was captured by French forces in 1802 and died a prisoner in France, the rebellion he had fostered did not die. In 1804 Dessalines declared Haiti to be the world's first black republic. Unfortunately, most of the country's plantation infrastructure had been destroyed and all the experienced administrators had been eliminated.
In 1806 Dessalines was assassinated, and for some years thereafter the northern part of Haiti was held by Christophe. In the southern part of the island a republic was established by Pétion. Upon the death of Christophe in 1820, Boyer, the successor to Pétion, began to consolidate his power throughout the island. He succeeded in unifying Hispaniola under his rule in 1822. In 1844 the eastern two-thirds of the island declared its independence as the Republic of Santo Domingo, now the Dominican Republic.
The subsequent history of Haiti was characterized by a series of bitter struggles for political ascendancy between the blacks and the mulattoes. In 1849 a black man, Faustin Élie Soulouque, proclaimed himself emperor as Faustin I, and for ten years he ruled in a despotic manner. In early 1859, the mulatto Nicholas Fabre Geffrard restored republican government; he remained in office until 1867.
About 95 percent of Haitians are of African origin. The remaining 5 percent are mulatto and other races. The mulatto population makes up about half of the country's elite. French and Creole, which uses both French colonial and West African phrases and words, are the official languages, the latter attaining that status in 1987. The poorer class (about 90 percent of the population) speak Creole, while the elite speak modern French. About 80 percent of Haiti's people are nominal Roman Catholics, many of them combining an African animism called Vodou or Vodun (commonly spelled voodoo) into their religious beliefs and ceremonies.
Haitian culture fuses African, French, and West Indian elements.Formerly a social divider, the Creole language is now being used in attempts to define a national culture. The language is used in literature, drama, music, dance, and some governmental functions. Haitian works of art are enjoying increasing worldwide recognition. The country has several outstanding libraries. The collection of the Brothers of Saint Louis de Gonzague (1912), the National Archives (1860), and the Bibliothèque Nationale (1940), all located in Port-au-Prince, contain rare works that date from the colonial period. Also devoted to Haitian history is the National Museum (1983), located in Port-au-Prince.
Haiti's most serious social problems stem from the disproportionate distribution of wealth. However, although Haiti is 95 percent black, there are also racial divisions between the small mulatto elite and the larger black population. Since colonial times the mulattoes have functioned as the ruling class. Having more in common with the wealthy classes of other countries, the mulattoes identify very little with poor Haitians. Underdeveloped social, economic, and political institutions—chiefly education—mean that there are few mechanisms within the country to promote upward social mobility. Another problem preventing social cohesion is the physical isolation of rural communities. About 79 percent of Haitians have little contact with Port-au-Prince or other centers of cultural change.
Haiti's energy consumption per capita is only one-third that of the world's poorest nations.Other than private generators, the Péligre hydroelectric plant on the Artibonite River is the only local source of commercial energy. In 1999 Haiti produced 672 million kilowatt-hours, mostly by burning imported fossil fuels. Poor Haitians use charcoal to supply energy for home use.
For most Haitians, daily life is a struggle for survival. An estimated 65 percent of the population lives in poverty. These people, many of whom farm small plots of poor mountain land, are often malnourished. Infant mortality is 93 per 1,000 births, life expectancy at birth is only 50 years, and the incidence of diseases ranging from intestinal parasites to acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is extremely high. Only about 46 percent of the population has access to safe drinking water, and only 28 percent has access to sanitary sewer systems. A limited elite of about 10 percent, mostly professionals, enjoys a sophisticated, affluent lifestyle. This elite class has traditionally resisted all attempts to restructure the Haitian social system.
